Traditional Chinese Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 10

Traditional Chinese Culture - Essay sampleThe Chinese traditional distinct language is a cultural value that establishes a mutually openhanded and universally embraceable world order. Language is a communication symbol that connects the Chinese citizens with external contacts. This is because a someone has to learn the traditional Chinese language in order to transact business with the locals (Zhang 9). The distinct well-formed and phonological set up of the language inspires interest among foreigners. Similarly, the unique writing style requires one to study the sentence formation for easy communication. For instance, business interactions require the usage of a common communication work understood by all partners. The traditional Chinese language has been studied across the world because the field boasts of sophisticated industrial and technological advancements (Zhang10). As a result, this has inspired a mutually tolerant and universally embraceable world order where people from diverse backgrounds come together to learn a common language. righteousness is always a unifying element that brings together believers to embrace and accept each other. China has ternary main religious denominations that people profess to for spiritual nourishment and divine intervention. The Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism have contributed to the Chinese nicety through their spiritual teachings. Buddhism is the most practiced religion in the country and spreads across other Asiatic nations (Zhang 15). The social and ethnic relevance of the religious associations has enabled the believers to develop their generation. It is apparent that Buddhism has had a remarkable contribution to Chinese civilization because most of the words and phrase used in the country have roots in the Buddhist origin.

Explain the difference between a change in demand and a change in the Essay

Explain the difference between a modify in need and a modification in the sum take awayed. List and discuss at least 5 factors tha - Essay Example gum olibanum the factors that determine read can broadly be categorized into cardinal categories price determinants and non-price determinants. Presence of these two distinct determinants of demand gives rise to two different but equally important concepts change in quantity demanded and change in demand. 1. Change in Quantity Demanded. A change in quantity demanded refers to the variation in consumers demand of a commodity due to a change in its price, new(prenominal) factors remaining constant. Thus, the only factor that causes a change in quantity demanded is price. In case of change in quantity demanded there is upward or downward movement along the like demand curve. The change in quantity demanded is depicted in fig 1. As the price precipitates from p to p1, the quantity demanded maturations from q to q1 and there is movem ent along the same demand curve from A to B. A fall or increase in quantity demanded due to the change in price is also termed as contraction or extension of demand. Fig 1 Change in Quantity Demanded 2. Change in Demand. A change in demand refers to an increase or decrease in demand that is brought nearly by a change in the other factors, except price. Thus a change in demand is a result of non-price determinants coming into force. ... Unlike, change in quantity demanded, a change in demand entails a shift in the demand curve either to the left or to the safe of the original demand curve. The change in demand is depicted in fig 2. There is an increase in demand when the demand curve shifts from D1 to D2. On the other hand, decrease in demand occurs when the demand curve shifts from D1 to D3. Fig 2 Change in Demand There are numerous non-price determinants of demand that lead to a change in demand. Some of these are discussed below 2.1 Tastes and Preferences. Tastes and preferences play a frigid role in shaping the demand for a product or commodity. In fact, the endeavor of whatever marketer of goods or services is to alter the tastes and preferences of the consumers so that they like the product that is being sold. The tastes and preferences of consumers are touched by numerous factors like advertising, promotions, cultural environment, government reports etc. For example, if the findings of a government funded research view suggest that ingestion of carbonated drinks like Coke or Pepsi may be harmful to the serviceman body, people may refrain from drinking these products and this may lead to a decrease in demand. 2.2 Prices of relate products. There exist products in the market that may be substitutes or complements to the product in question. It is sound to expect that the prices of these related products have a bearing on the demand of a particular product. It is worthy to mention that if the price of a substitute changes, the demand for the produc t under consideration moves in the same direction as the change in the substitutes price. For e.g. in case the price of Coke increases, quantity demanded of Pepsi, a

Civilian Contractors on the Battlefield Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Civilian Contractors on the Battlefield - Essay ExampleThe pursual discussion is going to explore the ethical problems, whilst defining the actual position of a civilian affirmer on the battlefield. Also it will consider the security problems in depending on civilian personnel, because there wager is in the monetary value of their service rather than the loyalty and security of a nation4. thusly this may jeopardize the security of battle planning, because if civilian asserters are working on a duty beam then if the opposition offered a better business deal then these civilian contractors become a breach in the US military strategy5.In the first place the role of the civilian contractor can be seen as military personal as the Hague multitude of 1907 allows that early(a) persons can be combatant in a time of war than just military personnel. Therefore under the geneva Convention these individuals will be afforded the protections as prisoners of war. This means that on the eth ical grounds of using contractors on the battlefield, governments such as the USA can legitimately affirm their use. In essence under the Hague Convention and the geneva Convention these individuals are in fact quasi-military, i.e. ... ercenaries.7 British Human Rights lawyer Helen Kennedy has illustrated that there is Brobdingnagian problems with the USA naming freedom superstars, armed guerrillas who are not part of a state force as terrorists in order to punish them through vengeance ethically and a breach of human-centred law.We the UK should not be tempted to take the American route There should never be a direct role for victims in punishment. If victims get to a direct say in sentencing decisions, how will consistency be achieved between the victim bent on vengeance and the person willing to forgive8The actions of the US authorities in Guantanamo Bay are an example of a nation of victims having a say in the punishment of perhaps innocent people and these victims have no objectivity and mass cruelty and torture is happening. This is happening of civilians that have taken up arms to protect themselves and named terrorists. How does the US government legitimize civilian contractors who are getting paid for there services on one hand, but not freedom fighters on the other The distinction does not make legal or ethical sense, because morally a freedom fighter has a better argument for their actions and to become a war prisoner protected under the Geneva Convention than does the civilian contractor.9 Finally, the security issues that the uses of civilian contractors raise are vast. In the first instance is a contractor is being highly paid there are business reasons for their use on the battlefield.10 Therefore is it not conceivably possible that if the contractor is offered a higher price on the opposition, the needs of the business and money outweigh loyalty Secondly, there is the possibility that there will be infiltration by the opposition through the use of civilian contractors especially in the case

Strategic Plan of my current employer Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Strategic Plan of my current employer - Essay ExampleInternal environmental factors affecting an schemes performance include strengths and weaknesses. Externally, opportunities and threats influence an faces performance among industry competitors. Inefficiency in the planning process is touch-and-go to the survival of an organization. Mistakes by the management while lying down the strategic plan management consequentially lead to failure and loss of business to competitors. In the extreme, an organization faces liquidation (Bo?hm, 2009). To accomplish is purpose of to bring a self-actualized scholar, who possesses a knowledgeable and discerning mind, thrives in service to others, and is prepargond for college, Paulo Freire Charter School essential effectively manage its internal and external environments effectively and efficiently. Internal factors adequately affect the strengths and weaknesses of an organization. The management of any(prenominal) organization needs to plan for the purpose of hedging against any form of internal problems. Resources and human cap are essential elements in the internal factors management. Availability of raw materials, financial capital for investment and campaign to work in the various departments are the internal factors affecting the performance of an organization. To achieve organizational goals, adequacy of resources is essential. Internal factors make both the organizational strengths and weaknesses. ... Long-term finances are essential in backing long-term operations of the shallow. Inadequate finances for an organization are its weakness, while adequate finances are its strength. Purchase of machinery, hiring of workers, and expansion of a classes and addition of courses offered by the school are the major uses of long-term finances in the school. Strategic budgeting process by an organization ensures proper allocation of resources according to the requirements of the organization. Poor budgeting of organiz ational funds potentially leads to financial problems to the school. Prioritizing needs with reference to the organizational needs and requirements will help the organization from getting into financial problems. Bo?hm (2009) points out that as strength, adequate finances greases the various wheels used by the management to achieve the schools purpose. However, this could also form part of its weaknesses. Inadequate funds, misappropriation of the schools income and poor liquidity position are a weakness that can lead to poor results, and thus the school losses business to its competitors. Human capital is responsible for the achievement of organizational goals and objectives (Bruce, 2006). To achieve its goal the school needs human resources, and these need care and profession in their handling. Investing in human resources of the organization increases the organization quality of services. At the same time, the organization achieves its goals, reaches its vision and lives up to it s guardianship statement. Proper motivational strategies to the teachers increase their output. According to Frey (2002), there is more to motivation than offering good salaries to the employees. Although

Protecting the Interests of the Employees Assignment

Protecting the Interests of the Employees - Assignment ExampleThe main aim why the check act was initiated to draw out advance nonices was to allow the employee and their families sufficient time to adjust to the prospective job termination. This also allows them to seek new(prenominal) employment opportunities as well acquisition of new skills that will make them more competitive in their new job prospects.There argon a number of employees who are not covered by the WARN form hence they are not subject to advance eyeshade by their employers. much(prenominal) include workers who are taking part in strike actions as well as those who are subject to labor disputes. Business partners, contract employees, and consultants who are charged with the responsibility for some period by an organization are not entitled to notification from their employers (Ford, et. al, 2000). The federal, local government and state employees are not subject to the Act as they are deemed to be protected by the government under new(prenominal) labor laws. Those employed on the temporary basis and those who have no direct control of the undertakings of the companies that they are working for are left out of the Warn Act.One of the factors that trigger the issuance of advance notice is the closure of a plant. An employer who is covered by the Act must issue the notice in stack where an employment site is to be shut down which is likely to lead to loss of employment. The only immunity to those who are to receive notice are the employees who have only worked for a period of six months in the last one year and those who work for the employer for an average of 20 hours per week. Another trigger is during mass layoffs in which an employer under the Act must issue advance notice where loss of employment is likely to deport place (the United States, 1993). The general requirements for the notice include the fact that all must be do in writing but any method of deliin truth s acceptable. The notice has to be very specific and it must be given conditionally upon the occurrence or the non-occurrence of a given event. The WARN Act is thus a clear provision of the law that seeks to protect the interest of the American workers. This Act has seen its application in all the states in a bid to safeguard the interest of the employees.

Week 3-4 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Week 3-4 - Assignment ExampleQuality literacy learning happens when students are offered the opportunities to lever recreational and creative aspect of the entire literature and other kinds of texts (Nixon, Comber, with Grant, & Wells, 2010). The curriculum should t herefore allow students to to the full participate in the society. The program should involve among other forms of support an emphasis on independent indication and independent writing alongside critical literacy to achieve independent learning for various(a) learners. This should be laurelled by a proper ongoing assessment that involves the following running records, observation surveys, observation checklists, rubrics, anecdotical records, and marking scales.Using an inquiry stance permits teachers to analyze the dynamics and complexities of their classroom communities as well as to design curriculum basing on their knowledge/understanding of students in their circumstances (Nixon, Comber, with Grant, & Wells, 2010 ). This means, teacher-researchers in schools teaching divers(prenominal) students bring social circumstance into the foreground they take into social circumstance to be more than the circumstance to the lives of their students. This approach makes the cultural and linguistic innovation of families a property rather than a deficit. The discussion here follows the work of a teacher who combines critical approach literacy with a property model of cultural diversity (Laura & Carol, 2008). This involves, foregrounding students cultural and linguistic resources in the curriculum to generate high quality literature results for different learners.The school I teach, it serves a diverse community of students. This includes significant numbers of languages speakers other than English in each classroom. This means that in there are collaborations between teachers to help linguistically and culturally diverse students to develop their literacy in English and other learning

The influence of the holy mosque of Mecca within popular culture Essay

The entrance of the holy mosque of Mecca within popular culture - sample ExampleThe city of Mecca and the holy mosque has changed over the years. The pilgrimage in Mecca draws around two million to threesome million pile from all over the world to go worship at the Mosque. The city has right away become a modern spectacle and people talk about going to Mecca simply because it is popular and non for the significance of it and the pilgrimage (Bosworth, 2007). hatful send a lot of photos and messages from the site and sh atomic number 18 them on fond media. The popular culture has a lot of persuade on people all over the world. People have the pressure of sharing the information and experience of the pilgrimage with the world. The pilgrimage at Mecca has been described as being in twenty super bowls with two million people play the game. The holiest fragmentise of the pilgrimage is put to the side, and people decide to focus on all the hype and fun of millions of people mandu cateing Mecca (Stefano, 2000). Saudi Arabia gets a lot of revenue from the topic, and it has improved the countrys economy immensely. Mecca has a powerful influence on the other Muslim nations and the Muslims look for opportunities and a chance to be able to visit Mecca in their lifetime (Bosworth, 2007). Most of the people interviewed concerning their reasons for wanting to visit Mecca have answers connected to popular culture quite of it being a holy land. Most of the people want to visit the city and the mosque because it is popular, and people who visit them ar considered important in the world.Visiting the city during the annual Hajj is quite expensive, and there are several festivities that accompany the pilgrimage. It is a luxury to visit the city, and people want to go visit the moorage to have a respectable name in the society. Western culture has a significant influence on the events that take place in Mecca. The people who can afford to go to the holy mosque are urged to make sure they go. The current culture in the world has made Hajj be an event of

University of Chichester Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 6750 words

University of Chichester - Coursework ExampleBritain had been traditionally proud of her universities with good reasons. For centuries forthwith British high educational institutions had been applauded from every quarter and now with the changed out facial expression after the globalisation, and the need for higher education in the best universities of the world, the same universities, which were exalted portals of a great educational system, have changed with the epoch and have become education providers and the institutions that train tomorrows business leaders. A study of one of the thus modify universities of United Kingdom, Chichester, is the topic of this brief research. The current study will go through the reasons why planetary students prefer this university, and what are the marketing strategies that the university offers etc. The study will have a closer look at the preferential decision psychology of the internationalistic students and the reasons behind such compu lsions. As the number of international students keeps growing every yr, it becomes imperative to know their reactions, preferences, choice compulsions, and their assimilation capabilities with another culture and the satisfaction level.With the political science laying stress on using the educational institutions that are now being treated as already made national investments, it is important for the universities to offer sought after courses with adequate academic back-up and push like well-managed business organisations. Universities today are functioning like any other business houses with noble competition by other universities who would like to make it to the forefront. Hence, this study attains importance in the light of the above, because it is incumbent to know why the international students, who are today treated as customers of the service providing universities, are interested in coming to Chichester more than most of the universities. It is also significant to under stand what service Chichester provides that might not be offered by other universities and thus, the study is pertinent and important. METHODOLOGYMethodology of this study depends on native research in the form of semi-structured questionnaires with connected informal questions that could be asked along with primary questions. There exists a sensible questionnaire with pertinent set of questions and these questions were presented for the student reactions. A group of 200 students was picked up and it had 92 males and 108 pistillate students belonging to cross sections of courses. Out of them, seven had disabilities and three learning disorders. They are effectively managed and helped by the impairment provider section and have no complaints owing to their situation. They came from all parts of European Union, including even the newest members of EU. cardinal of them are here on exchange programmes and will return to their mother universities after one year and they are highly en thusiastic about their Chichester experience and showed an obvious reluctance to leave the university. It looked as though the exchange students had only positive points about the university and were pleased by everything they saw and experienced. Even though research had no connection with sexual orientation, four students mentioned that they belonged to the homosexual crowd and have not countered any bend or prejudice either from the university or from the fellow students. They have their own choices of entertaining places, clubs, eateries and they seem to be very comfortable in and out of

The role of channel marketing in the B2B global marketing challenge Research Paper

The role of billet marketing in the B2B global marketing challenge - investigate Paper ExampleThe technological advancement in Europe is believed to be the core reason for capacious outsourcing in crude oil and bollocks up sector of the world. Nevertheless, the outsourcers and channel marketers have more brand value than the pure producers of crude oil. The importance of channel marketers atomic number 18 significantly growing because consumers on the street know the companies that smokestack in oil and gas products locally.The actual producers of oil and gas do not have able resources that are needed to purify, market and distribute products at an international level. The channel marketers therefore, come into the play. But, in the date of reference of the 21st century, the role of channel marketers is not limited to promotion. They have to purify the crude oil and gas in order to make them consumable (Silvestrea & Dalcol, 2009).Additionally, channel marketers rely on compa nies like Lumin-Ultra to acquire technologies that are necessary for purification of crude oil based products (Valentini, Montagut, Neslin, & Frey, 2011). Recently, the company has developed a method of on the spot measurement of microorganisms in crude oil and after measurement, the company assists in devising the intercession that will neutralize the impurities and thus more pure crude products can be obtained in this fashion. The have technology made it easy for producers to find biological agents and get rid of them more effectively and efficiently. The abovementioned procedure helped the operators in minimizing the time needed to purify the products. The Lumin-Ultras major operations are sponsored by channel marketers that are responsible for commercializing the final oil products in the international market.The channel marketers are also set in motion to have more brand reach and recognition in the global consumer market. The actual producers of crude oil do not have necess ary technological and financial power required to reach and sacrifice a brand name in global market

Key Components of Interest Rate Risk and Approaches of Risk Management Essay

Key Components of Interest Rate risk and Approaches of Risk Management for Chinese Banks - Essay ExampleThis paper illustrates that the type of risk tends to affect the stock and puzzle market in different ways. However, as the raise rate risk impacts the bond market negatively, the investors displacement reaction their investment pattern from the bond market to the equity market, influencing the performance of this segment of the financial market. In this paper, the happen upon components of interest rate risk will be analyzed thoroughly. The financial system of China is considered to be one of the highly regulated, involving highly integrated economic and monetary policies. Such regulations and integrations are reflected in the execution of the banking sector of the country as well. Therefore, for the purpose of analysis, the risk management approaches of the banking sector of China will be critically evaluated. Non- alignments arises in the balance sheet and off-balance shee t items of the banking sectors. In case of fixed interest rate, much(prenominal) mismatches originate at the time of maturity of the financial instrument and in case of variable interest rates the non-alignments arise at the time of revaluation of an asset, liabilities as well as off-balance sheet instruments. range and size of such temporal mismatches make it critical to forecasting miscellaneas in interest rate which in turn creates huge interest rate risk. Basis value risk arises out of the asset-liability mismatches. Many times, the correlativity between the value of maturities and revaluation of asset- liabilities and their calculative values becomes highly negative because of the adaptation of interest rates. This pleasant of risk also changes the index rates used for pricing the liabilities and asset that does not really change in a concurrent way and originates huge amount of interest rate risk

Discuss critically contemporary international approaches (e.g. World Essay

Discuss minutely contemporary international approaches (e.g. World Bank, Financial Stability Board) to consumer character regulat - Essay ExampleThis reform has been accounted due to the product in the consumer character references and rise in the total of consumer denotation institutions1. Contextually, consumer credit is considered as a key driver of economic growth as it is use for the payment of services holding a major proportion of the industrial contribution obtained by any economy in the modern world2. In a general sense, consumer credit is that commodity, which is produced by the private sectors and and then sold to the consumers. These regulations are fixed for the sale, available in a wide range of varieties. The most usually observed regulations in the consumer credit are the price and the interest rates. The information and disclosure regulations are excessively persistent regarding the debt collection aspects in a particular country, also seemed to be an impor tant aspect to the regulators and legislators as well3. In a recent affair, the European Commission (EC) has denoted the significant role of consumer credit in the growth of national economy and also the well being of the consumers and thus, it is seeking to adopt the credit regulation across the country4. The government has further planned to implement the policy of credit regulation across the country so as to regulate strong credit markets all over the nation along with the minimisation of the run a risk of debt. The strategic approach and aim of adopting the consumer credit regulation along with the objective further differs from one articulate to another. It can be well understood with the example of both Germany and France, which possess rates at a lower level ceiling along with lower legal maximums. Illustratively, the most stringently market base approach has been adopted by the UK with no rates of ceiling5. The government of the UK had introduced Consumer Credit Act 197 4 in its constitution, which focuses on the protection of the consumers and control of trafficrs along with taking due measures to implement the provisions of credit being modulate by the Director General of Fair Trading6. In this essay, the major concern has been drawn with the attention towards the critical evaluation of the contemporary international approaches to the consumer credit regulation. The essay has described the concept of consumer credit regulations in enjoy of the practical case study referrals of World Bank and Financial Stability Board. Defining Consumer Credit jurisprudence As per the subsidiary legislation of the UK in 2010, the consumer credit regulation has been broken into words, viz. Customers and Credit, for drawing a clear understanding of the term. In accordance, consumer is a person who is responding to the trade or business under the regulations of the transaction7. On the other hand, the creditor is that person who has made a commitment to grant cre dits for performing trade and business. Thus, the consumer credit regulation implies the act that has been developed by the government body for the protection of the consumer and the creditor performing a trade or business. One of the useful terms that are usually used in the definition of consumer credit regulation is the credit agreement. It is that contract between the consumer and

Arabic spring Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Arabic spring - Essay ExampleThe effort to lead peremptory to enhance their regional influence is not effective because of incompatible reasons. Various regimes have a different view on the opportunities and constrains created by Arabic Spring, the influence whitethorn require medication latter, their effort may end up shaping the modernly Arabs elected governments. About ten years before the tramp of Arab Spring, there was the rise in global authoritarianism with an attempt of Arab autocracies to adopt their own ruling to new domestic and regional challenges. The wide implications of authoritarian collective action lead to Arabic Spring. In analyzing their effect, we test on two related dynamics, which include the way in which powerful authoritarian regimes work as a team to advance collective interests in sustaining or consolidating institutional and strategic alternative to the western democracy. Secondly is their attempt use the Arab Spring as a mobilization tool to gain re gional support, democratic powers such as that witnessed in Turkey, Brazil, South Africa, among other nations. With their sympathetic critiques of western economy and their geographical strategic dominance, these states are seen as the global authoritarians as potential allies might enlist that in efforts to redefine regional security and political structure, thus threatening the United States aim of advancing their interest. globalisation is a process where in different fields, the world is working together as a single society, marked by common institution, organizations, and shared culture of consciousness.

Judicial Review- public law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Judicial Review- public law - Essay subjectIn the Prolife case the appellate court considered the extent to which a shineer could curtail a PEB or Party Election Broadcast. In that particular case the BBC had conceded that it was a public authority, in a cut sense for the specific purpose of the appeal in the House of Lords. However, it did not accept this classification in a wider context (R (ProLife Alliance) v BBC , 2004 ). The House of Lords, in their judicial review of this contention, held that the BBC had been justified in refusing to broadcast the election manifesto of an anti abortion party, deeming its manner of presentation to be in bad taste. This closing accorded greater deference to the BBC than to a court, which was subordinate to it (Tugendhat & Christie, 2006).This issue of deference invited a significant amount of variance after the enactment of the Human Rights Act. Some authorities have contended that the judiciary should take cognizance of the following, p art deferring to the other branches of the government. The degree to which political, economic or social issues are involved the degree to which courts have the essential proficiency in the matter under consideration the nature of the rights and the extent to which these rights are afforded protection by the constitution.The manner, in which the judiciary has set about deference under the Human Rights Act, indicates the extant legal traditions. In addition, it elaborates upon the well established administrative law tenets, which state that the judiciary should abstain from supplanting the decision producers judgment with its own ruling. The courts are required to apply, the principle of Wednesbury irrationality, which does not require a repeating of the detailed judicial hearing into the facts of the case. Moreover, this situation is exacerbated by the inadequate constitutional law principles (Reported Decisions of

How Well Do We Know the Arab Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

How Well Do We neck the Arab Culture - Essay ExampleAll Arabs atomic number 18 Muslims because there are Arab Christians found in some places of the Arab world, and only between 15-18% of Arabs are Muslims. Certain beliefs in refining and tradition are found to be untrue in a document presented by the OFDCSI. For instance, for a long time, I held on to the judgment that Arab males are wealthy oil magnates, terrorists, and mad dictators and any association with them are dangerous. These are types of perceptions that are or so common with lack of understanding. Facts from research disprove this and showed that Arabs have diverse economic segments of the population and there are also poor people among them. Because of terrorism that relates to Arabs, I perceived them to be mad dictators and have postcode in mind but bring chaos to the western world. Readings from OFDCSI again proved me wrong as madness cannot thrive in different political system adhered to by Arabs they could not be terrorists because a majority of the citizens are law-abiding, keep families and employed in the variety of occupations.Arabs are concerned about modesty, and that is the power why Arab women are clothed in full-length cover, and most devoted women could be seen covering withal their faces. Traditional garbs for men are robes, but headdresses indicate the tribe from which they belong. Today, according to OFDCSI, Arab men wear a mix of western clothing because now they wear t-shirts and jeans along with traditional garb.Arab women differ with western culture when it comes to subordination to men. OFDCSI refers to this culture as being subordinate to men in varying degrees for instance, it is very regulatory in Arabian Peninsula and undisturbed in urban areas of Lebanon, Syria, and Egypt. It is expected that foreigners respect the privacy of women role in the Arab world.

Nashville International Airport (BNA) Research Paper

Nashville International aerodrome (BNA) - Research cover ExampleThough the aerodrome was initially built on just 337 acres of discharge, the airport has since acquired contiguous land for expansion. Finch (2009) reveals that the airport currently sits on more than 4,500 acres of land. Finch (2009) reports that, apart from the acquisition of more land for expansion, the airport has also undergone a series of renovation, which has transformed it be one of the safest airports to board a plane. For instance, the airport has four runways, which are long enough to handle all types of aircrafts. The longest runway measures roughly 3,360 meters, which meets the RSA standards for handling all kinds of aircrafts. Finch (2009) noted that Nashville International Airport (BNA) currently handles a very large fleck of travelers and cargo. Finch (2009) reveals that BNA has 12 airlines that serve the various cities in North America and beyond. The airport is report to be witnessing about 400 arrivals and departure daily. Finch (2009) reveals that about 8 million passengers currently fly either from or into the airport. For instance, it is reported that about 4.67 million passengers boarded flights on Nashville International Airport (BNA) in 2011. The airport also handled more than 84,000 tons of cargo in the same year. Currently Nashville International Airport (BNA) ranks 34th-busiest passenger airport in the U.S. ... As earlier indicated, Nashville International Airport (BNA) handles about 7 million passengers severally year which is more than 1% of Americas total passenger embarkations, according to Surhone, Timpledon and Marseken (2010). Nashville International Airport (BNA) recognizes the fact that the airport serves even the physically challenged. As a result, the airport has elevators and ramps used by these passengers for alighting and boarding the plane. The airport also has an ample parking bay for vehicles with handicap license plates. In this regard, it is a fate that each airline makes its own arrangement for assisting the physically challenged to get to and from the plane. In addition to the parking divvy up for the physically challenged, the airport also has a packing bay for all provided free of charge as long as the vehicle is not packed for more than 30 minutes. Moreover, there is also a short-vehicle servicing garage for passengers who travel via the airport (Romine, 2012). Nashville International Airport (BNA) also has many merriment facilities at the airport that ensures that its passengers are not left the board while waiting their flights. Finch (2009) reveals that the airport has close to of the several hotels and restaurants at the terminus where passengers can enjoy their meals. The hotels and restaurants serve a variety of meals and drinks to passengers at affordable prices. In addition, the airport also features live bands on a daily basis ranging from jazz to county practice of medicine (Surhone, Timpledon, and Marseken, 2010). The terminus of the airport is also well illuminated by skylights designed by Robert Lamb Hart, the noteworthy New York architect. This contributes to the general atmosphere of accessibility and openness. Security is also beefed up at the

It is up to you Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

It is up to you - Essay Example cultural relativism is defined as a principle by which an individuals beliefs and activities are only subject to judgment based on that particular individuals culture. In fact, it holds the view that no culture is superior to any early(a) culture with respect to morality standards, politics, law and any other considerable aspects unique to individual cultures. Cultural relativism and moral relativism share a lot of similarities and it is widely believed that after World War II, following the popularization of the principle of cultural relativism, the term cultural relativism was commonly mistakenly used to mean moral relativism. lesson relativism undermines the rule of law. The formation of laws is based on a fixed standard stand on a moral issue that has to be adhered to otherwise one may have to face consequences. Moral relativism on the hand is based on the belief of non-existence of absolute morals. Rights and wrongs are purely dependent on a pers ons preferences and opinions on the matter. Take for example rape, a person accused of rape capability claim innocence and absolve from any wrongdoing on the basis of moral relativism. The rapist great power argue that rape is right within his personal beliefs and culture. However brutal this sounds, a moral relativist finds it logical. round in this case cannot be seen as wrong, and probably the strongest opinion that can be made come in of it is I dont like it. This contradiction of the law may result in a chaotic situation where everyone does anything anywhere and at any time as long it suits their preferences (Shumacher).Christians and other religions similarly believe that there exists a supreme being who is the standard authority for morals by which they hold by. Rights and wrongs are, therefore, based on Gods moral law. For moral relativists, God is nonexistent. Their disregard of a

Henry Viii, the Tyrant of England Essay Example for Free

total heat Viii, the Tyrant of England EssayAll throughout history, some important figures puddle contri entirelyed to the growth and develop manpowert of the world in several(prenominal) aspects including the economic and political advancement of their corresponding regions. However, m each of these great leaders have gived this goal through various contrasting ideologies, as seen with the rule of henry eight-spot in England during the 16th century. henry viiI, also known as hydrogen Tudor, ruled amidst 1509 and 1547 during which he was regarded as Englands most important monarch (Mcenegart).While fairy Henry is credit to playing a decisive role in the development of England, the methods by which he achieved this title bed be considered questionable due to controversial actions he had taken during his rule Henry is still criticized to this twenty-four hour period for his dramatic reduction of the nations economy due to expensive warfare and expansion, and his extensive disbursal to ensure his place as the king (Mcenegart). I believe that female monarch Henry is an extremely unequivocal save effective leader in history because of his active role in the development of England and the societal strife and economic conflicts he brought to the complex civilization. Biographical InformationHenry Tudor existed during a crucial event in history with the climb-down from the Roman church, and was born in Greenwich England on June 28, 1491. As a child, Henry Tudor was a real enthusiastic student and enjoyed learning. His father, Henry VII, enrolled him to learn various languages including Latin, Spanish, French, and Italian while at the same time required him to study mathematics and music. In his leisure time, Henry Tudor enjoyed hunting numerous animals, and took part in physical competitions including wrestling and jousting in which he was regarded as being able to draw the bow with greater strength than any man in England (Henry, VIII).Howeve r, in 1502 Henrys eldest brformer(a) died due to tuberculosis. Arthur Tudor was the rightful heir to nonplus the throne later on his father however Henry then became the eldest son to Henry VII and was next in succession to inheriting the throne (Mcenegart). As a result, Henry Tudor was agonistic by his father to marry his brothers married woman, now a widow, named Catherine of Aragon, the first of many Catherines he would soon marry (Henry VIII. vast 105). Shortly after on April 22, 1509 the ruthless yet notorious father of Henry Tudor passed away, allowing Henry Tudor, now more popularly known as Henry VIII, to receive the throne as the youngest and first uncontested Prince to ascend as the tycoon of England (Mcenegart). leadership QualitiesThroughout the rule of the new King of England, many leadership qualities Henry possessed soon became unvarnished and served as a crucial example of how he was to lead the citizens of England. After the death of Henry VII, Henry Tudor cl aimed the throne and immediately became the next ruler, Henry VIII of England. In the early years of his rule, Henry quickly discarded his fathers certain chief ministers, Edmond Dudley, and Richard Empson who he had executed for treason in 1510. Henry then primarily focused on foreign affairs in which he support Spain but acquired a detested view of the French, and soon conjugated with Spain in their efforts to invade France in 1512 by distributing troops to help support the war effort this in return lead to the victory of the dispute of the Spurs in 1513 and the acquirement of the cities Tournai and Thorouanne. The War of the Holy League then concluded with the marriage amongst Henrys sister Mary Tudor to Louis XII of France, completing the treaty between the devil regions.Following this marriage, Henry received the papally bestowed title, Defender of the Faith as a reward for writing the financial statement of the Seven Sacraments, a criticism of Lutheran doctrine (Henry, VI II). In the later years of King Henry VIIIs rule, he began to focus less on foreign affairs and bit by bit increased his interest in the English Reformation. In 1530 after several negotiations, Henry realized that the secession from the Roman Catholic Church would be the only way to achieve what he desired politically and socially. As a result, he buildd an independent church that would declare his marriage to the guiltless Catherine null and impair, seeing that she could not realise the desired male heir that king Henry so urgently required, and one that would end his marriage without question to his authority (Henry VIII Great 106).Throughout his rule, King Henry found himself married to several wives including one marriage to Anne Boleyn who gave birth to Princess Elizabeth, the future Queen of England, but was still unable to give birth to the desired male heir that would take the throne undermentioned King Henry VIIIs rule. After the birth of Elizabeth, Anne Boleyn became a shrew of a wife and was accused of adultery and witchcraft, by Henry himself, and was executed later that year (Henry VIII Great 106). Following the death of Anne, Henry was soon married to Jane Seymour, who for the very first time was able to create a son that would serve as the male heir for the throne however, Henrys wife quickly passed away due to natural causes during childbirth.As was expected of the King, Henry accused his following troika wives, Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard, and Catherine Parr, of adultery in which only Catherine Parr was spared (Henry VIII, King 442). During the complicated marriages of Henry VIII, he was also very focused on the English Reformation in which he decided to educate his son in Protestant beliefs so the future King of England would carry on his legacy. During the 1540s however, Henry became very spineless and unhealthy as a result he wrote a will that stated if Edward was to die without any male heirs, the crown would descend to Mary a nd then onto Elizabeth (Henry VIII The Renaissance 350). Soon after the will was written, the honored yet feared King Henry passed away on January 28, 1547 (Henry VIII, King 443). companionship to LiteratureThe tyrant Henry VIII is characterized as an incredibly smart individual who is manipulative in his efforts to achieve his desired goals and often caused chaos and complications where conflict may have been soft avoided. The King of England is easily comparable to Curleys wife from the book Of Mice and Men, in the aspect that both shared very mistakable personalities. In this book, Curleys wife often desired to be around other men that appreciated her and would unintentionally cause conflicts between the numerous farmhands. Early on in the book, Lennie begins to develop an interest in Curleys wife noticing how pretty she was when they first met. Near the end of the book, Lennie and Curleys wife are whole talking to each other while all the other men are gambling on a game of ho rseshoes during this discussion, Curleys wife mentions how soft her hair is, and as Lennie starts to feel it, she begins to run nervous and pull away.Lennie however does not let go of her hair and accidentally snaps the fragile lie with of Curleys wife. Henry VIII of England and Curleys wife are similar in numerous ways. both had created pandemonium among the civilians around them through poor decision making and conflicts they had created. While Curleys wife associated herself with other farmhands causing tension between the workers King Henry VIII had also associated himself with the wrong women in whom he decided to have killed through accusation of adultery or witchcraft. The several wives of the king were unable to produce a male heir he so desperately desired so as a result, he caused unnecessary tension by killing them in a similar way Curleys wife was killed, through decapitation. Both Curleys wife and Henry VIII played a vital role in the lives of others and without them, the events succeeding them would be drastically changed.ConclusionWithout the existence of Henry VIII of England, the issue of the War of the Holy League and the connection between church and state in England would still be very contrasting to this day on the other hand, Henrys rule was very dear(p) towards the nations finances and several critical horrifying decisions he had taken while King confirmed his existence as a more tyrannical leader in history. While he did create a separate Protestant church in England and helped form valuable connections between France and Spain, several hundred men and women were accused of treason and put to death at the mercy of his word.Alongside these men and women, several of Henrys personal friends and family members were also put to death including his fathers trusted advisors and many wives just because they were unable to give him what he wanted. Henrys life had an astronomical allude on a very complex civilization during his time period h owever many of the actions he had taken were to nourish his extensive and controlling lifestyle in which he was willing to do anything to achieve his goals (Henry VIII Renaissance 351).

The United States and the Soviet Union in the Period 1944- 1950 Essay Example for Free

The fall in States and the Soviet spousal relationship in the Period 1944- 1950 EssayIn 1944 the United States of America and the wedlock of Soviet Socialist Republics, were allies in the struggle against National Socialist Germ both and her Fascist Axis allies in atomic number 63 thus far by 1950 the relationship had disintegrated to such an utmost that the two countries had on more than i occasion nearly g 1 to war with individually separate. How had this situation arisen, and what were the implications non only for the two protagonists in what became known as the cold-blooded state of war, but in addition for the rest of the adult male in this peeled nuclear Age. There was no definite date on which the erstwhile allies began to regard each other as potential adversaries and rivals for world influence. Neither, was their 1 definitive or downstairslying reason, for the difference of opinion among the erstwhile heartbeat World fight Allies. However, in the la tter gunpoints of the conflict and the geezerhood immediately in store(predicate)(a) it would emerge a pattern of misunderstandings, miscalculations, misjudgements and suspicions which would come to char transactionerise the following fifty years or so, in the relationship between the two countries and their respective allies.In order to assess the policy-making realities of the situation pertaining at the measure it is necessary to need the geopolitical realities which existed, grumpy within atomic number 63 and in addition to consider the internal political and economic situations in both countries in the time of advantage over the Nazis, and the quintuplet years following that triumph. Not, withstanding that there was also the Empire of Japan to be defeated particularly by Britain and America, although the Soviet partnership would also have a part to play in that conflicts denouement.The compact of Soviet Socialist Republics was born as a result of the 1917 October Re volution, when the Bolsheviks, guide by Vladimir Ilich Ulyanov known as Lenin, established the worlds first communist state by overthrowing the Provisional Government of Alexander Kerensky. There followed a Russian Civil War from which the Red ground forces formed by Leon Trotsky was detailually to secure a victory for Lenins Bolsheviks. Prior to this the emerging state faced enemies both internally and external, indeed Britain, France and the US all at one time gave support to the whites the enemies of the communists in the Russian Civil war. In 1923 Lenin died and a power contest ensued to see who would succeed him. Joseph Jugashvili, better known as Joseph Stalin emerged as General Secretary of the Communist party of the Soviet Union.He set ab forth merci littlely liquidating all op mystify. Including his bitter rival Trotsky (who was murdered in exile in Mexico), his merciless repression reached a peak with show trials and executions of alleged counter revolutionaries. The number of great deal he was responsible for killing either directly or indirectly by failed economic policies and so forth is unknown but must run into several millions. The form of communist state he created is normally called Stalinist. Historians often point out Stalins purges of military officers as one of the main contributing factor in Hitlers early victoryes in the Soviet Union. The Nazi onslaught came about despite the Non-Aggression Pact signed between the 2 counties in 1940. Nonetheless, by 1944 Soviet troops were poised to begin the final defeat of the threesome Reich, from the east.In 1944 a confident and vigorous United States, led by Franklin D. Roosevelt, was relishing the prospect of the sackful of atomic number 63 and also the practically acheed for defeatof Japan. The war, had by dint of the huge amount of government sp barricadeing, revitalised the American economy and by the final stages of the war America was indis roamably the worlds economic heavyweight . Roosevelt was indeed the only American hot seat in history to be elected to four terms in office. He certainly carried the bulk of the population along with him. Although, it must be stated that he also earned the undying enmity, of a large section of the American conservative right, who blamed Roosevelt for introducing socialist policies to America i.e. the policies introduced by the first Roosevelt administration, to make for economic recovery in the midst of the Great Depression (known as the New Deal), possibly one of the worst economic crisis that the capitalist economies had ever faced. In reality, the New Deal owed more to the economic policies of the British economist John Maynard Keynes than to those of Karl Marx. Nonetheless, to a section of American Society who imbibed the nonion of classic liberal laissez faire political economy with their mothers milk Roosevelts ideas represented an unwholesome and unwelcome variegate of priorities, and the bitterness felt would not be substantially dissipated.With the Japanese attack on the US fleet at Pearl Harbor on the s exampleh December 1941, and Hitlers Declaration of war against America, the US the Second World War alongside the UK and the Soviet Union which, as previously stated, Hitlers Germ either attacked in the summer of 1941 in Operation Barberossa. So right from the first-class honours degree the alignment between the Soviet Union and the United States was more a marriage of convenience, than a love match. Historically, this confederation was something of an aberration, as the US did not even recognise the USSR, until 1933. However, it wasnt until victory looked certain, that the parties gave any serious thought to the fig of the post war world.In October 1944 the British Prime Minister held a meeting with Stalin in capital of the Russian Federation during the range of which, the post war shape of the Balkans and the contiguous regions was tacitally agreed or perhaps, more accurately the areas of these regions where each power would have spheres of influence. This meeting was to prove hugely significant in the years to come in particular as to the thinking of Joseph Stalin.As the end up of National Socialism and Japanese militarism became inevit equal to(p) during the course of 1944, the war aims of the victors became settled in the minds of the probable victors. It curtly became apparent that both the USSR and the USA had different end games in mind, which as the international situation settled down in 1945, soon turned out not only to be different but also to a large finish in return exclusive.These differences became publicly apparent for the first time during the Yalta Conference, a meeting held in the Crimean resort between the drawship of the Allied powers in February 1945, i.e. Stalin, Roosevelt and Winston S. Churchill, the prime minister of the United Kingdom. Although, it is controversyable whether, any great or meaningful blueprints for the fut ure of the post war world were actually arrived at during the course of the Crimean Conference, other than the three leaders formally re-affirming the Dumbarton Oaks agreement setting up of the United Nations. However, there were understandings, firstly that elections would be held in all vary state countries, additionally a rather nebulous declaration of self-determination for the said countries. What was not explicitally stated, but thus far implicitly understood by all parties was the smell of legitimate spheres of influence, along the lines agreed in the Churchill- Stalin spinning top in 1944.Had it not been realised before, Yalta it certainly became known during the conferences that each power in particular the Soviets put different interpretations on the notion of free and fair elections and inter alia democracy. This, notion would be physically mold by events on the battlefield more than lines on a map drawn by political leaders. At Yalta Roosevelt and Churchill informe d Stalin that a second front would definitely be launched against Hitler. In addition Churchill and Roosevelt want to ensure that the agreements viz. free and fair elections would be applied with regard to Poland as it must be borne in mind that this was Britains original war ain in 1939 when it went to war after Hitler invaded Poland. Churchill in particular was aware of the historical enmity that existed between Poland and Russia Stalin however assuaged Anglo- American concerns, and assured Britain and the US that the Soviet Union would allow free elections in all European countries liberated by the Red ArmyThe bequest of Yalta, is still the subject of contentious debate, particularly amongst the conservative section of the American body politic however as was previously stated in terms of ascribing spheres of influence in reality this conference real only confirmed what was happening on the ground i.e. the Red Army had already liberated much of Eastern Europe and was poised for the invasion of the Third Reich proper in 1944/45. Whilst the horse opera Allies would soon put into effect Operation Overlord landing on the beaches of Normandy on their march, to destroy the Reich from the west in addition to the push northwards through the now German occupied Italy, in the face of a tactically dogged and inspired German retreat, organised by Field marshal Albert Kesselring. Thus, it would be thorny to see, short of immediately going to war with the Soviet Union or perhaps credibly imperil to do so, even if that had been either militarily or politically possible what in reality the British or the Americans could have do differently.One interesting footnote to the Yalta Conference is that just two old age after its conclusion the RAF and the USAAF, bombed the historic eastern German city of Dresden with horrific civilian casualties (around 25,000, although the precise conception was never known) and dubious strategic importance.By the time of the next Allied conference, held in Potsdam in atomic number 74ern Germany in August 1945, the scene had shifted dramatically. President Roosevelt, who had towered over American foreign and domestic policy had died and been replaced by the Vice- President Harry S. Trumann. Roosevelt had not involved Trumann in the field of foreign affairs quite deliberately. He therefore had to get himself up to speed immediately. Trumann was not as understanding of Soviet foibles as Roosevelt had shown him to be nonetheless he was not, at this stage, anti Soviet. In the United Kingdom too, there was a change in leadership Clement Atlees Labour Government having won a sensational landslide victory in what was dubbed The Khaki election replacing the wartime coalition led by Churchill (the actual changeover approach during the conference itself).Both Western leaders were suspicious of Stalins motives regarding his plans for Eastern Europe, in particular his approach to the promises make in Yalta in regard to free e lections, where it seemed in both American and British minds, that Stalin just treasured the installation of puppet pro- Soviet regimes. The Soviet leader was perhaps somewhat perplexed at this change of attitude, as Stalin understood that he already had agreement on spheres of influence and he considered it a done deal. One factor, which obviously emboldened Trumann, was the knowledge that the US would drop the Atomic Bomb on Hiroshima half-dozen eld after the end of this conference. The Americans did not officially inform Stalin, but in any event it is likely he was aware of the bomb from his spies (mainly within British Intelligence) nonetheless, it is debatable if Stalin actually understood the nasty power of nuclear weapons at that stage.As the records show Hiroshima was bombed on the 6th August 1945, followed 3 days later by an atomic attack against the Japanese city of Nagasaki. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union declared war on the Japanese on the 8th August 1945. The Japanese in the face of the twin affright from Atomic weapons and the Red Army surrendered on the 15th August.The wartime alliance now began to rapidly unravel as its whole raison detre i.e. the defeat of its wartime adversaries had been accomplished. There were meetings between the parties but little of substance was achieved, and more often than not these meetings would degenerate into accusatorial exchanges. There was no doubt that the power of the bomb was in many slipway a show of American strength, to the Soviet Union, one that was noted accordingly. One, agreement of note should be mentioned which would conduct great import in the coming years was the Agreement for the Soviets to accept the surrender of Japanese forces supra the 38th Parrralel, and the Americans to assume control below this.The area of trade proved another source of disagreement, Roosevelts sum carry scheme that had been of enormous influence throughout the conflict. to all Allied nations, more or less came to an end on the ascension of Truman to the Presidency. In actual fact cargo ships destined for the Soviet Union were called back en- route. To add insult to already injured Soviet feelings was the loss of a Soviet covering for US trade attribute, somewhere within the Washington bureaucratic machine. The Soviet hunger for tax credits was satiated by the American talk of consultation representation on all contents relating to trade in Eastern Europe. In the same breadth the Americans sought to agree plans for repayment of Soviet lend lease debt. The question of American commercial and cultural hegemony would resonate in Europe in years to come, and not just with the Soviet Union.Perhaps the most important document to come out of this period was the so- called long telegram whose progenitor was George F. Kennan an America specialist on Soviet affairs. Keenans analysis of Soviet policy was astray disseminated within the US State Department and in time would hugely affect the policy o f Trumans administration. In this telegram Kennan espouses the debate that the Soviet view of the world is essentially akin to that held by the pre revolutionary Russians, dressed up with and made even more lethal by the addition of Marxism. Kennan advised toughness when dealing with the Soviet Union and essentially called for a US policy of containment of Soviet influence, as opposed to the view of Roosevelt, which sought to encourage the Soviet Union into a new liberal democratic order. However, at this stage Truman was not yet ready for a policy of containment, if not idealistic enough to take Roosevelts position he was still hoping for some kind of rapprochement with Stalin.Winston Churchill captured the mood of the times (15th March 1946) from an Anglo/ American aspect at any rate, when in a speech in Fulton, Missouri he declaimed to an audience that include a nodding President Truman that from Szczecin in the North to Trieste on the Adriatic an iron curtain has descended on the continent. Churchill also used this speech to call for an alliance of English speaking nations.Stalin was, not altogether unsurprisingly, al build up at the thrust of Churchills rhetoric, as in Soviet eyes the target of this proposed alliance could only be the Soviet Union itself and made his feelings public in an interview given to Pravda on the 13th March 1946. Stalin reiterated Soviet concerns viz. Anglo- American aggressive tendencies and equated the undertones of Churchills speech to the racist ones orated by Adolf Hitler. Stalin also pointed out that the Soviet Union had been invaded via neighbouring countries that were unsympathetic to the Soviet Union. Thus, it did not entail a massive leap in logic to deduct that one of Stalins primary aims was to ensure that all neighbouring states were at the very least pro- capital of the Russian Federation.Perhaps the single largest issue to emerge in the immediate post war years was the status of the defeated Germany. In 1946 Germany was administered by the four victorious allies i.e. the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and France (still, smarting over having been left-hand(a) out of the Great Power conferences).The German capital Berlin was similarly divided into four zones. At the outset neither side had any firm or concrete plans for the future of Germany apart from a disposition for some form of reparations by the Soviet Union and on the Anglo/ American side a heavy desire to avoid the re- creation of the mistake many believed had been made with The Treaty of Versailles i.e. being too punitive in relation to reparations and development in Germany These views although divergent to some degree, need not have been axiomatically opposed. thusly, at this stage the idea of a united Germany was one that found favour in London. Moscow and Washington, with genus Paris being the only one to harbour doubts, mainly for internal political reasons.Truman, however more and more frustrated at what he saw as Soviet obduracy and deception enunciated his feelings in what came to be known as the Trumann principle in March 1947 before Congress in a debate on allocating funds to Greece and Turkey. Essentially this doctrine divided the world into free and enslaved/ enslaver peoples and committed the US to act in the defence of any so called free people being threatened by armed minorities or outside pressures. Stalin (correctly) saw that Truman meant communist when referring to armed minorities etc. He immediately reasoned the Truman Doctrine as a threat to Soviet interests and the Cold War was now off and running, in earnest.The declaration of the new US policy was actually precipitated by the relative decline of the UK in power and influence, and the ravages of the monstrous winter of 1947 in Europe. At the time of Trumans speech the main purpose was to secure funds for the anti communist side in the Greek civil war. The UK had been pushed to the brink by the efforts re quired to sustain the Second World War and was virtually bankrupt. Most European countries were in a similar if not worse position, if action was not taken to rectify the financial and economic situation as a matter of extreme urgency, it was soon apparent that Western Europe may not require the massed Red Army tanks in order to sharply turn to the left. The solution proposed by the US was at once rummy and even viewed through the lens of over fifty years extremely generous, if not carried out for reasons of staring(a) philanthropy. The US Secretary of State George marshal proposed a plan, which would bear his name.The Marshall Plan was formally unveil in a speech by Marshall at Harvard University on the 5th June 1947, in which a broad outline of an economic aid plan to Europe was outlined. A meeting was held in Paris to take the idea forward, at this stage the Soviet Union was seriously interested in the Marshall Plan. The thing that stuck in the throat of Stalin and his foreign minister Molotov was the idea of common planning and the notion of the Soviet economy being examined by British and American economists. The Soviet Union declined to take any further part in the Marshall Plan. The boundaries of capitalism and communism were now set and would remain so for the next 50 years. The Soviet rejection of the Marshall Plan could not have come as any shock in the West indeed it may have been exactly what the Anglo- Americans for one were aiming for all along.Europe was now divided between the recipients of American largesse in the west and those countries by dint of their closeness to the Soviet Union who were unwilling, or perhaps unable to accept such American aid. In order to oppose to recent events the Soviet Union convened the Communist In governance Bureau, known as Cominform in Szklarska Poreba in Poland, which calm of representatives of the communist parties of the Soviet Union, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Poland, Czechoslovakia, France, Italy, an d Yugoslavia.The Cominform launched an ideological attack on the Marshall Plan and the Trumann Doctrine. It however was at straining to point out that despite the ideological differences the Soviet Union was perfectly happy to co- exist with capitalism for an unidentifiably long period after which orthodox Marxist theory predicted the collapse of capitalism due to one or other of the many in built tensions that existed within that system.The desire for both systems to co-exist did not nix the enlistment of the cut and Italian trades unions in an effort to derail the Marshall Plan. The strikes failed in large euphony due to the arrival of American food aid in Western Europe. The US for the fist time began to run covert Central Intelligence Agency covert operations within Italy in an travail to ensure that the Italian Communists did not succeed in winning the Italian General election. This was done by a series of direct and indirect public pronouncements on the consequences for A merican aid in the event of a communist victory, together with what was to become the familiar pattern of CIA covert operations i.e. black propaganda, whodunit payments to non- communist political parties, and special training and equipment for the armed forces.Stalins reaction was characterised by its lack of insight and success in uniting the anti communist political forces in Western Europe. The failure of communist led strikes in Italy and France. In the increasingly heavy-handed approach to the political situation in Eastern Europe alienated many in the left in Europe. The situation in Czechoslovakia where firstly the Czech unlike Minister had an unfortunate fall from his Foreign Ministry window swiftly followed by a communist coup in that country severely undermined Soviet credibility in the minds of the Western public. A further crisis substantial within the Cominform itself when Stalin tried to exert pressure on the Yugoslav Communist Party to expel its leader Marshall Tito.Tito however retained the confidence of the Yugoslav Communist Party, and far from being feeling himself by Stalins overtures actually began to negotiate for US aid, an act that resulted in Yugoslavias expulsion from the Cominform in 1948. The internecine squabble between Stalin and Tito, had the effect of reducing even further the goodwill of the public towards the Soviet Union within both the US and Europe. Stalin further raised the tension in Europe by paralysing the Allied Control deputation by withdrawing his representative Marshall Sokolovsky. The three other control powers proceeded to treat each of their occupation zones of Germany and of Berlin itself as effectively one unit. In addition plans had been laid for the introduction of the Deutschmark, which was duly introduced in the British, American and French sectors of Germany as well as in the zones controlled by theses three countries of Berlin on the 23rd June 1948.The Soviet receipt was to immediately begin a blo ckade of Berlin. For the first time since the cessation of hostilities their existed the very real fright that war could break out. In order to beat the Soviet blockade the Western Allies determined to mount an airlift in order to supply food and other essentials to West Berlin. The Berlin Airlift lasted for cardinal months and managed to supply adequate food and fuel for two million Berliners. Despite some calls for the forcing of a musical passage into West Berlin by tanks, cooler council prevailed .The Soviet rationale for the blockade was simply to prevent the Western Powers proceedings down the road with their plans for a separate West German state whatever the Soviet inclination it was once again based on misjudgement and a miscalculation, and succeeded only in pushing forward the boldness of a West German state.Realising eventually that the only choices open to him was to relent or face conflict a war against a US led alliance armed with nuclear weapons, Stalin abando ned the Berlin block on the 11th May 1949. The consequence of this crisis was the establishment of the very thing Stalin had started the blockade to prevent i.e. the formation of the Federal Republic of Germany on the 20th of September 1949. Following, the rather predictable tit for tat answer that was to become the trademark of the cold war, the creation of the German Democratic Republic was announced to the world on the 7th October 1949.The Berlin Blockade and the splitting of Germany succeeded in raising fears within Western Europe to such an extent that there was intense pressure for a formal alliance, which would tie the US into the defence of Western Europe. As a result the North Atlantic Treaty organisation came into being in 1949. The division of Europe was now formalised, and complete along ideological lines.The focus of attention would now turn east, where Mao Tse Tungs communists were in the process of achieving the final defeat of the nationalist Kuomintang forces unde r Chiang Kai- shek. Conservative opinion in the United States was appal at this development accusing Trumanns administration of selling out American interests in the region and wait onlessness to provide adequate support to the Kuomintang forces in the Chinese Civil War. This was to be a running tender in the side of the right in America, who viewed it as the sign of communist aggression worldwide. It would act as the impetus for the McCarthy Period, so called because of the committee called The House Committee on Un- American Activities, which would be headlined by Senator Joseph McCarthys purges on alleged communists.McCarthy aided and abetted by future President Nixon unleashed a series of show trials which uncannily reflect those of Stalin in the 1930s, albeit with considerably less gruesome results Nonetheless, the hearings of this committee changed the atmosphere in the US to such an extent that political liberals, trades unionists and effectively anyone who dared challen ge McCarthys orthodoxy was subject to harassment, intimidation and exclusion from employment. The atmosphere endangered by Nixon and McCarthy would help to polarise opinion in America during the late 1940s and well into the 1950s.Against, this backdrop the forces of North Korea support by Moscow, albeit with some reluctance crossed the 38th Parallel, to invade the western backed South. The attack was repulsed and the forces under the command of wartime hero Douglas Macarthur, after a series of battles advanced towards the Yalu River and Koreas border with China. Seeing this as a provocation China became involved in the war. This brought the world once more to the brink of nuclear conflict, as Macarthur rather injudiciously ruminated about the possibility of using nuclear weapons against China. Fortunately, Trumann declined the war eventually ending in stalemate with both sides having to be content with the pre-war boundary of the 38th Parallel.The start of the Korean War signalled the end of the development of the cold war, and ushered in the political conditions that would shape the map of the world for the next fifty years nearly. However was the Cold War the inevitable outcome of the situation that arose at the end of World War Two?What is obvious from studying the records of the period is that neither side considered war inevitable, far less desirable. kind of the emergence of the Cold War owed more to serendipity than careful planning and desire by either side. The Cold War began in Europe, as that was where both sides met each other over the ruins of the Third Reich. The Americans with some sign distaste took up where her enfeebled Western Allies left off in South East Asia and the Pacific. The Soviet Union by dint of its support for Marxist regimes found itself being dragged along on the coattails of Maos revolutionary China. in one case underway the cold war developed a momentum of its own and its logic embedded itself in the mindset of policymakers in Washington and Moscow. At every turn either superpower would see the felonious hand of the other behind every event more often than not erroneously.It is tempting to animadvert what the outcome would have been had President Roosevelt not died in 1945. In order to avoid the Cold War the situation needed thought that was imaginative and could see things in a way that was novel. Unfortunately for the world no one emerged in either side of the Iron Curtain with the necessary breadth of vision. Stalin was undeniably a tyrant, and it would have been unlikely that a Soviet Union led by him would have been able to reach a long-term rapprochement with the West.However, the great mistake made by the West was in assuming that the monolithic state espoused by Stalin was truly representative of the Communist Part of the Soviet Union. Indeed Stalin was unique and by tarring his sucessors with the same brush the West was unable to change its perception when a new and potentially more accomad ating power took charge in the Kremlin. The Soviet Union for its part made faulting of judgement so vast as to be inexcusable. Perhaps the greatest of which was its failure to join the Marshall Plan. That and the desire to supplant any form of independent government in Eater Europe, proved in the long term to harbour the seeds of the systems eventual destruction.If more thoughtful council had prevailed, on both sides then perhaps the next fifty years could have been entirely changed. Instead the only real winners of the cold war were the industrial- military complexes as Eisenhower was to term it on both sides, although in the long term only that of the West proved to have the longevity to be called by some the winner.

Transportation Management Essay Example for Free

tape drive Management EssayTransportation plays a vital role in the department of transport. Transportation includes road, railways, aviation, transit etc. The mission of transit is to safely cover the distance between the two destinations. The lineup cognise as the Transportation Research Board carries step to the fore these menu objectives.This type of board mission is to frame an innovation and to develop the growth of the transportation. The mission objective is to improve the steps that ar earlier carried out by the transportation department. Modification should be the strategy among the board management. The change should be followed by the natural covering or execution of the recent progress made by another(prenominal) countries in the means of transportation. The boards subject area is to share the rules or implications to the management authority. The management authority should split the information to the persons appointed to do the contrive. The practiti oners should trust it and the researchers should implement it with proper management skills.Different countries bugger off separate rules and regulation consort to which different countries work out thither musical arrangement and police according to their plans. But the main(prenominal) theme of the transportation should safe, genial and no pestering occurs during transportation. For example it should be seen that the aviation transportation department should tolerate the proper sideline rules for a free access of the transportation. Not only the air traffic should be well nonionised but also the customers services are also be managed by the management board.The ticketing system should overhear extra precaution arrangement as soon as the customers are purchasing a ticket. escapism fares with proper reservation of the seats should well clarify before purchasing it. Services to the customers on board should be well handed to the professionals who are related to the hospita lity Industry. Airport authority management should be well organized in the planes arrival and departure. Organization teams should be well trained before they are put into rule. The board of aviation should chalk out there plans of the whole systems before operating it. (Trb, 2006)The American and European are usually initiated, financed and well constructed by the private enterprise. They are well maintained and lowering controlled. The government has provided a lot of fund and opportunity to the private organization so that the citizen do not award problem in transportation.The private organization has taken the transport system quiet acutely and they had implemented the transport system in a well-organized manner. They normally solve the problem as promptly as possible without getting delayed. The more spontaneous they work out the problem it will be helpful to the board to go ahead with other situation that are creating or having a problem.The American and the European tra nsport system facilities had developed so quickly that the other countries are planning to have that type of transportation system that they do not possess. Even the metro railway transportation system is better than that of India. They provide faster and advanced transportation system to the citizens that they dont face crisis situation. Compare and contrast comes when there are disadvantages seen in the transportation system in the countries of America and European countries. (Prisma-eu, 2007)As road transportation is concerned, the board should have an organized planning. thoroughfares and highways should be well connected to each and e precise cities, towns and villages. Road tracks should not be having traffic problems and for that professionals should direct the traffic signal operation. To control the system in the streets and roadstead the board should appoint police those can gratis the traffic if any problem occurs. They should be skillful well and they should be taught with different problems of the roads rules and regulation safety norms so that they do not face any difficulty when they are in the operation. They should be provided with proper dress and the functions of the job should be distributed according to the work knowledge is concerned.Railway is another feature of transportation .The country progress depends on this very system others are also equally valuable but the railway transportation is one of the main criteria. For long distance travel, passengers are provided with better seating as well as the sleeping arrangements on with the service of food and beverages. Normally the travelers those who travel in trains can provide ample time for transportation and the fare here are also low in comparison to the airlines, road and shipping. Transportation in train takes a lot of time to cover the distance that the travelers want to travel, in comparison to other faster transportation.The board of railways should provide more facilities to it s customers in terms of their previous arrangement of services that they have given earlier. Air transportation is receiving more customers than the railways because they are providing quicker destination service with an affordable rate. To header with that type of facilities railways board of management taking actions of not increasing the price of the ticket and also in the service provided. The board always has to see that they do not loose its customers due to increase in the various area of transportation system. (Prisma-eu, 2006)ReferencesTrb 2006 Critical Issues in Transportation trb.org retrieved on 07.02.2008 from http//www.trb.org/news/blurb_detail.asp?ID=5786Prisma-eu 2006 Implications of Pan-European best practice in eTransport delivery prisma-eu.comPrisma-eu 2007 eTransport 2010 vision prisma-eu.com

Cost Theory Essay Example for Free

live guess Es registerOnce a plant owner sp supplants m nonp beily to manufacture goods, that m singley is no perennial addressable for ab knocked out(p)thing else. drudgery facilities, machinery used in the intersection transferion process and plant workers be all examples of constitute. woo guess offers an approach to understanding the be of drudgery that allows steadfastlys to determine the direct of output that reaps the greatest level of pull ahead at the least woo. 2. Features * Cost theory contains various measures of be. These include a fasts fixed be and protean comprises. The former do non convert with the quantity of goods cited.Rent on a facility is an example of a fixed monetary appraise. Variable embodys exchange with the quantity produced. If increased closing curtain fruit requires much workers, for example, those workers wages atomic number 18 changeable hails. The sum of fixed and variable bells is a loadeds aggregate apostrophizes. * additive Measures * Cost theory derives two surplus equipment casualty measures. Average congeries terms is the core terms divided by the yield of goods produced. marginal constitute is the increase in count cost that heads from change magnitude intersection by one unit of output.marginalsincluding b are(a) be and marginal r make upueare key plans in mainstream frugal thought. Falling and Rising be * Economists often use graphs, similar to come out-and- rent charts, to illustrate cost theory and firms decisions rough business. An fairish total cost curve is a U- straind curve on an economic diagram. This shape illustrates how total total be disapprove as output rises and then rise as marginal cost increase. Average total be decline at first because as production rises, norm be are distri fur in that locationd everywhere a larger number of units of output.Eventually, marginal costs of increasing output rise, which increases average total costs. Maximizing Profits * Economic theory holds that the goal of a firm is to maximize profit, which equals total revenue minus total cost. Determining a level of production that generates the greatest level of profit is an important pictureation, one that means paying attention to marginal costs, as well as marginal revenue (the increase in revenue arising from an increase in output). Under cost theory, as capacious as marginal revenue exceeds marginal cost, increasing production leave raise profit.Types of Cost economic science Economists factor costs in umpteen different ways. Though you may read the cost of a soup can at $1 as its listed on the grocery store shelf, economists watch over the cost of the soup can in very different ways. For example, an economist asks what you are giving up to buy that can of soup over a nonher item. They measure the firms cost of producing that soup can as it relates to their output and factors of production. Thus, the different types of economic costs are varied. 1. Sunk Cost * A sunk cost is an expense that can non be recouped.Mark Hirschy, author of the book, Fundamentals of Managerial Economics, explains that sunk costs should not factor into a decision when deciding amongst alternatives. For example, say a person sp finis $50,000 on a degree in education and earns $60,000 as a t each(prenominal)er. She is subsequent offered a hire out in commercialiseing that pays her $80,000. Though she may be tempted to factor in her education degree as reason to stay in her current teaching job, her $50,000 degree is regarded as a sunk cost. She already spent this money, and it cannot be recouped.In this case, she should unaccompanied compare the respective salaries of the positions. If all else is held equal, she should pursue the tradeing job. luck Cost * An opportunity cost is the esteem of an alternative choice. Though the word cost usually equates to a numerical prise, like a dollar figure, this is not always t he case. William Baumol and Alan Blinder, authors of the book, Economics Principles and Policy, state that an opportunity cost calculates intangible things like measure, location and job satisfaction.They explain opportunity costs are what you give up to follow one course of action. For example, a college alumnauate is deciding amongst a job as a tech consultant in Seattle or an investment broker in New York City. If the grad pursues the investment broker position, the opportunity costs of foregoing the job in Seattle could be a pokey pace of life, $10,000 higher salary and lower costs of living like rent and food. * Marginal Cost * A marginal cost is the centre it takes to produce one much item.Under this view of costs, they vary along the production line and in virtually cases the cost to produce a good reduces over cartridge clip. Intuitively, this practices sense the to a greater extent proficient you become at producing a good, the faster you can do it and slight(pren ominal) waste is produced. The savings in outwear and material as you achieve economies of scale means the cost of production usually decreases. The way economists recover the marginal cost is by taking the derivative of the total costs as it relates to the total output. How to Find Marginal Cost in EconomicsDeciding whether to produce to a greater extent units is often base on marginal cost. The economic concept of marginal cost is the cost associated with producing one supernumerary unit. This information is important to production linees because it allows the company to decide if the excess unit is worth producing from a financial standpoint. When a company produces a small gist of product, the cost of additional units often decrease. moreover, marginal costs increase when additional units are added once the production level reaches a minimum. This is ground on the law of diminishing marginal returns.Instructions 1. * 1 Calculate the change in total variable cost. This i s the bill that the costs increased by after additional units are produced. For example, if youd like to produce more(prenominal) T-shirts and the increase in output would change the costs by $ hundred, then the total variable cost is $100. * 2 Find the change in quantity produced. This re lays how many additional units you would like to produce in the given scenario. For example, the change in quantity would be 50 if youd like to produce 300 T-shirts instead of 250. * 3 Divide the change in total variable costs from Step 1 by the change in quantity from Step 2. This will give you the marginal cost (marginal cost = the change in total variable cost/the change in quantity). For this example, $100 (the change in total variable cost) / 50 (the change in quantity) = $2 in marginal costs, which is the cost of producing each additional T-shirt. What Is the Relationship Between Production amp Cost? Production costs are linked to the cost of materials and labor.The relationship between p roduction and cost in any manufacturing process varies based on mountain produced and whether any part of the manufacturing process is outsourced or performed by subcontractors. Additionally, production and cost symmetrys vary based on the amount of automation involved in production and the amount of tender oversight and involvement infallible. 1. Factors of Production * The main factors of production are labor, hood and supply costs. Capital is defined as equipment, cash reserves, and carnal location or production facility.Labor is defined as the amount of and cost of manpower required to bring a product to market. This includes not only the physical labor and oversight related to product production, but also the associated costs of salaries of positions such as managers, delivery drivers, warehouse supervisors, marketing directors and even administrative assistance. Supply costs are any tip associated with securing necessary materials for production. Subcontractor or outso urced work is considered a supply cost as well, as the manufacturer is essentially purchasing a product or serving for use in the production process.In this example, work such as offsite creation of product publicity or assembly of minor components of a finished product are considered supply costs in the selfsame(prenominal) way the purchase of painful materials are considered supply costs. loudness of Production * Volume of production figures signify the amount of products being produced. Typically, the greater the volume the lower the cost per unit as raw material suppliers often offer discounts on mass or lot orders. Volume of production is based on a companys anticipated product needs, past sales records and ordinated orders. *Volume of Business * The relationship between production and cost is frequently determined by the volume of business a company is doing. An example that illustrates this point is a multinational vitamin supplement company that produces vitamins in bu lk compared to a small health food chain that produces its own vitamin line in small quantities. The cost of the product produced by the small company will typically be greater than the cost of the product offered by the bulk manufacturer because the little company produces its product in smaller volumes. Price Points The more it costs a company to produce a product, the greater harm the company will shoot to charge consumers. A companys production costs include the price of materials, the cost of manpower, the production and packaging process, advertising, and distribution. Mass producers may be able to offer more competitive pricing to end users because they feature the luxury of working on a thin margin due to the large volume of production. In microeconomics, the long eviscerate is the conceptual time period in which there are no fixed factors of production as to changing the output level by changing the majuscule transmit or by entering or leaving an indus interpret.The long egest telephone circuits with the pitiable break, in which some factors are variable and others are fixed, constraining entry or exit from an industry. In macroeconomics, the long run is the period when the general price level, contractual wage rates, and expectations adjust fully to the state of the sparing, in contrast to the short run when these variables may not fully adjust. 1 In the long run, firms change production levels in response to ( pass judgment) economic boodle or losses, and the land, labor, capital goods and entrepreneurship vary to reach associated long-run average cost.In the simplified case of plant capacity as the only fixed factor, a generic firm can make these changes in the long run * enter an industry in response to (expected) moolah * leave an industry in response to losses * increase its plant in response to profits * decrease its plant in response to losses. Long-run average-cost curve with economies of scale to Q2 and diseconomies of scale thereafter. The long run is associated with the long-run average cost (LRAC) curve in microeconomic models along which a firm would minimise its average cost (cost per unit) for each respective long-run quantity of output.Long-run marginal cost (LRMC) is the added cost of providing an additional unit of service or commodity from changing capacity level to reach the utmost cost associated with that extra output. LRMC equalling price is efficient as to resource allocation in the long run. The concept of long-run cost is also used in determining whether the long-run expected to induce the firm to remain in the industry or shut down production there. In long-run residue of an industry in which perfect competition prevails, the LRMC = Long run average LRAC at the minimum LRAC and associated output.The shape of the long-run marginal and average costs curves is determined by economies of scale. The long run is a think and implementation stage. 23 Here a firm may decide that it needs to produce on a larger scale by building a new plant or adding a production line. The firm may decide that new technology should be incorporated into its production process. The firm thusly considers all its long-run production options and selects the optimal compounding of inputs and technology for its long-run urposes. 4 The optimal combination of inputs is the least-cost combination of inputs for desired level of output when all inputs are variable. 3 Once the decisions are made and implemented and production begins, the firm is operating in the short run with fixed and variable inputs. 35 Short run some(prenominal) production in original time occurs in the short run. The short run is the conceptual time period in which at least one factor of production is fixed in amount and others are variable in amount.Costs that are fixed, say from existing plant size, have no touch on on a firms short-run decisions, since only variable costs and revenues affect short-run profits. much(p renominal) fixed costs raise the associated short-run average cost of an output long-run average cost if the amount of the fixed factor is better suited for a different output level. In the short run, a firm can raise output by increasing the amount of the variable factor(s), say labor through overtime. A generic firm already producing in an industry can make three changes in the short run as a response to reach a posited counterweight * increase production decrease production * shut down. In the short run, a profit-maximizing firm will * increase production if marginal cost is less than marginal revenue (added revenue per additional unit of output) * decrease production if marginal cost is greater than marginal revenue * continue producing if average variable cost is less than price per unit, even if average total cost is greater than price * shut down if average variable cost is greater than price at each level of output. Transition from short run to long runThe fareion from the short run to the long run may be done by considering some short-run equilibrium that is also a long-run equilibrium as to supply and demand, then comparing that state a arrive atst a new short-run and long-run equilibrium state from a change that disturbs equilibrium, say in the sales- taxation rate, tracing out the short-run leeway first, then the long-run adjustment. Each is an example of comparative statics. Alfred Marshall (1890) pioneered in comparative-static period outline. 6 He istinguished between the temporary or market period (with output fixed), the short period, and the long period. Classic contemporary graphic and formal treatments include those of Jacob Viner (1931),7 John Hicks (1939),8 and Paul Samuelson (1947). 9 The law of diminishing marginal returns The law of diminishing marginal returns to a variable factor applies to the short run. 10 It posits an effect of decreased added or marginal product of from variable factors, which increases the supply price of a dded output. 11 The law is related to a positive slope of the short-run marginal-cost curve. 12 Macroeconomic imposts The usage of long run and short run in macroeconomics differs somewhat from the above microeconomic usage. J. M. Keynes (1936) emphasized implicit in(p) factors of a market economy that might result in prolonged periods away from full-employment. 13 In later macro usage, the long run is the period in which the price level for the economy is completely tensile as to shifts in aggregate demand and aggregate supply. In addition there is full mobility of labor and capital between sectors of the economy and full capital mobility between nations.In the short run none of these anatomys need fully hold. The price is sticky or fixed as to changes in aggregate demand or supply, capital is not fully vigorous between sectors, and capital is not fully mobile to interest rate differences among countries amp fixed exchange rates. 14 A famous critique of neglecting short-run de pth psychology was by John Maynard Keynes, who wrote that In the long run, we are all dead, referring to the long-run proposition of the quantity theory of, for example, a doubling of the money supply doubling the price level. 15 Marginal analytic thinking Thinking at theMargin From Mike Moffatt, former About. com Guide From an economists perspective, make choices involves making decisions at the margin that is, making decisions based on small changes in resources * How should I spend the abutting hour? * How should I spend the next dollar? On the surface, this seems like a strange way of considering the choices made by commonwealth and firms. It is rare that someone would consciously ask themselves How will I spend dollar number 24,387? , How will I spend dollar number 24,388? . Treating the problem in this matter does have some distinct advantages * Doing so leads to the optimal decisions being made, subject to preferences, resources and informational constraints. * It makes the problem less messy from an analytic point of view, as we are not trying to analyze a million decisions at once. * While this does not simply mimicker conscious decision making processes, it does provide results similar to the decisions people actually make. That is, people may not think using this method, but the decisions they make are as if they do.Marginal Analysis An Example debate the decision on how many hours to work, as given by the following chart mo periodic Wage Value of Time arcminute 1 $10 $2 hour 2 $10 $2 Hour 3 $10 $3 Hour 4 $10 $3 Hour 5 $10 $4 Hour 6 $10 $5 Hour 7 $10 $6 Hour 8 $10 $8 Hour 9 $15 $9 Hour 10 $15 $12 Hour 11 $15 $18 Hour 12 $15 $20 The hourly wage re benefactions what I earn for working an extra hour it is the marginal gain or the marginal arrive at. The protect of time is essentially an opportunity cost it is how much I value having that hour off.In this example it represents a marginal cost what it costs me by working an additional hour. The increase in marginal costs is a common phenomenon I do not consciousness working a few hours since there are 24 hours in a day. I understood have plenty of time to do other things. However, as I start to work more hours it reduces the number of hours I have for other activities. I have to start giving up more and more valuable opportunities to work those extra hours. It is clear that I should work the first hour, as I gain $10 in marginal usefulnesss and lose only $2 in marginal costs, for a net gain of $8.By the same logic I should work the second and third hours as well. I will want to work until which time the marginal cost exceeds the marginal benefit. I will want to work the 10th hour as I receive a net benefit of 3 (marginal benefit of $15, marginal cost of $12). However, I will not want to work the eleventh hour, as the marginal cost ($18) exceeds the marginal benefit ($15) by three dollars. Thus marginal analysis suggests that rational m aximizing behavior is to work for 10 hours. Next Lesson Market Distortions Altering the Supply and consider Equilibrium.Marginal Analysis * Marginal Revenue Glossary Dictionary Definition of Marginal Revenue * Marginal Significance Value Glossary Dictionary Definition of Marginal Si * Marginal Revenue and Marginal Cost Practice Question Related Articles * Running a Private Practice body of working with Animals * Work Stress Long Work Hours Are Not the Culprit * Open for Business Scheduling Your week Being a Personal Trainer * Three Union Work Rules That Increase the Cost of direct Transit * Hold On to Your Sanity Start Your Own Business AN INTRODUCTION TOCOST avail ANALYSIS * Background * Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) estimates and totals up the identical money value of the benefits and costs to the community of calculates to entrap whether they are worthwhile. These abides may be dams and highways or can be training programs and health care systems. * The musical th eme of this economic accounting originated with Jules Dupuit, a cut engineer whose 1848 article is still worth reading. The British economist, Alfred Marshall, speculate some of the formal concepts that are at the foundation of CBA.But the practical development of CBA came as a result of the impetus provided by the Federal Navigation Act of 1936. This act required that the U. S. army corps of Engineers tolerate out swans for the improvement of the waterway system when the total benefits of a check to whomsoever they come exceed the costs of that project. Thus, the Corps of Engineers had created systematic methods for measuring such benefits and costs. The engineers of the Corps did this without much, if any, assistance from the economics profession.It wasnt until about twenty geezerhood later in the mid-fifties that economists tried to provide a rigorous, consistent set of methods for measuring benefits and costs and deciding whether a project is worthwhile. Some technical issues of CBA have not been wholly resolved even now but the fundamental presented in the following are well established. * Principles of Cost Benefit Analysis * One of the problems of CBA is that the computation of many components of benefits and costs is intuitively obvious but that there are others for which science fails to suggest methods of measurement. Therefore some basic principles are needed as a guide. There must(prenominal) Be a Common Unit of Measurement * In order to reach a coating as to the desirability of a project all aspects of the project, positive and negative, must be expressed in terms of a common unit i. e. , there must be a bottom line. The most convenient common unit is money. This means that all benefits and costs of a project should be thrifty in terms of their uniform money value. A program may provide benefits which are not directly expressed in terms of dollars but there is some amount of money the telephone receivers of the benefits would consi der just as good as the projects benefits.For example, a project may provide for the elderly in an area a free monthly visit to a doctor. The value of that benefit to an elderly recipient is the minimum amount of money that that recipient would take instead of the medical care. This could be less than the market value of the medical care provided. It is assumed that more esoteric benefits such as from preserving open blank or historic sites have a finite equivalent money value to the public. * Not only do the benefits and costs of a project have to be expressed in terms of equivalent money value, but they have to be expressed in terms of dollars of a particular time.This is not just due to the differences in the value of dollars at different generation because of rising prices. A dollar purchasable five stratums from now is not as good as a dollar for sale now. This is because a dollar available now can be invested and earn interest for five years and would be worth more than a dollar in five years. If the interest rate is r then a dollar invested for t years will grow to be (1+r)t. Therefore the amount of money that would have to be deposited now so that it would grow to be one dollar t years in the emerging is (1+r)-t.This called the discounted value or present value of a dollar available t years in the future. * When the dollar value of benefits at some time in the future is multiplied by the discounted value of one dollar at that time in the future the result is discounted present value of that benefit of the project. The same thing applies to costs. The net benefit of the projects is just the sum of the present value of the benefits less the present value of the costs. * The choice of the appropriate interest rate to use for the discounting is a separate issue that will be treated later in this paper. CBA Valuations Should Represent Consumers or Producers Valuations As Revealed by Their Actual Behavior * The rating of benefits and costs should ref lect preferences revealed by choices which have been made. For example, improvements in exile frequently involve saving time. The question is how to measure the money value of that time saved. The value should not be merely what transportation planners think time should be worth or even what people say their time is worth. The value of time should be that which the public reveals their time is worth through choices involving tradeoffs between time and money.If people have a choice of parking close to their destination for a fee of 50 cents or parking farther away and spending 5 minutes more paseo and they always choose to spend the money and save the time and effort then they have revealed that their time is more valuable to them than 10 cents per minute. If they were indifferent between the two choices they would have revealed that the value of their time to them was exactly 10 cents per minute. * The most challenging part of CBA is finding past choices which reveal the tradeoffs and equivalencies in preferences.For example, the valuation of the benefit of cleaner air could be established by finding how much less people remunerative for housing in more polluted areas which otherwise was identical in characteristics and location to housing in less polluted areas. Generally the value of cleaner air to people as revealed by the demanding market choices seems to be less than their rhetorical valuation of clean air. * Benefits Are Usually Measured by Market Choices * When consumers make purchases at market prices they reveal that the things they buy are at least as beneficial to them as the money they relinquish.Consumers will increase their consumption of any commodity up to the point where the benefit of an additional unit (marginal benefit) is equal to the marginal cost to them of that unit, the market price. Therefore for any consumer acquire some of a commodity, the marginal benefit is equal to the market price. The marginal benefit will decline with the amount consumed just as the market price has to decline to get consumers to consume a greater quantity of the commodity. The relationship between the market price and the quantity consumed is called the demand plan.Thus the demand schedule provides the information about marginal benefit that is needed to place a money value on an increase in consumption. * Gross Benefits of an Increase in Consumption is an subject Under the Demand arc * The increase in benefits resulting from an increase in consumption is the sum of the marginal benefit times each incremental increase in consumption. As the incremental increases considered are taken as smaller and smaller the sum goes to the area under the marginal benefit curve. But the marginal benefit curve is the same as the demand curve so the increase in benefits is the area under the demand curve.As shown in Figure 1 the area is over the range from the lower limit of consumption forwards the increase to consumption after the increase. * Figure 1 * When the increase in consumption is small compared to the total consumption the gross benefit is adequately approximated, as is shown in a welfare analysis, by the market value of the increased consumption i. e. , market price times the increase in consumption. * Some Measurements of Benefits guide the Valuation of Human Life * It is sometimes necessary in CBA to evaluate the benefit of saving military personnel lives.There is considerable antipathy in the general public to the idea of placing a dollar value on human life. Economists recognize that it is impossible to fund every project which promises to save a human life and that some rational basis is needed to select which projects are approved and which are rancid down. The controversy is defused when it is recognized that the benefit of such projects is in reducing the risk of death. There are many cases in which people voluntarily accept increased risks in return for higher pay, such as in the oil fields or mining , or for time savings in higher hasten in automobile travel.These choices can be used to estimate the personal cost people place on increased risk and thus the value to them of rock-bottom risk. This computation is equivalent to placing an economic value on the expected number of lives saved. * The Analysis of a Project Should Involve a With Versus Without Comparison * The impact of a project is the difference between what the situation in the assume area would be with and without the project. This that when a project is being evaluated the analysis must estimate not only what the situation would be with the project but also what it would be without the project.For example, in determining the impact of a fixed guideway rapid transit system such as the Bay Area Rapid Transit (baronet) in the San Francisco Bay Area the number of rides that would have been taken on an expansion of the bus system should be deducted from the rides provided by BART and likewise the additional costs of such an expanded bus system would be deducted from the costs of BART. In other words, the alternative to the project must be explicitly specified and considered in the evaluation of the project. mark off that the with-and-without comparison is not the same as a before-and-after comparison. other example shows the importance of considering the impacts of a project and a with-and-without comparison. Suppose an irrigation project proposes to increase like production in Arizona. If the United States Department of floriculture limits the cotton production in the U. S. by a system of quotas then expanded cotton production in Arizona might be offset by a reduction in the cotton production quota for Mississippi. Thus the impact of the project on cotton production in the U. S. might be zero rather than being the amount of cotton produced by the project. * Cost Benefit Analysis Involves a Particular Study Area The impacts of a project are defined for a particular study area, be it a city, region, state, nation or the world. In the above example concerning cotton the impact of the project might be zero for the nation but still be a positive amount for Arizona. * The nature of the study area is usually specified by the organization sponsoring the analysis. Many effects of a project may net out over one study area but not over a smaller one. The specification of the study area may be arbitrary but it may significantly affect the conclusions of the analysis. * Double Counting of Benefits or Costs Must be Avoided sometimes an impact of a project can be measured in two or more ways. For example, when an improved highway reduces travel time and the risk of injury the value of piazza in areas served by the highway will be enhanced. The increase in property value due to the project is a very good way, at least in principle, to measure the benefits of a project. But if the increased property values are included then it is unnecessary to include the value of the time and live s saved by the improvement in the highway. The property value went up because of the benefits of the time saving and the reduced risks.To include both the increase in property values and the time saving and risk reduction would involve ingeminate counting. * Decision Criteria for Projects * If the discounted present value of the benefits exceeds the discounted present value of the costs then the project is worthwhile. This is equivalent to the condition that the net benefit must be positive. Another equivalent condition is that the ratio of the present value of the benefits to the present value of the costs must be greater than one. * If there are more than one mutually exclusive project that have positive net present value then there has to be further analysis.From the set of mutually exclusive projects the one that should be selected is the one with the highest net present value. * If the funds required for carrying out all of the projects with positive net present value are less than the funds available this means the discount rate used in computing the present values is too low and does not reflect the true cost of capital. The present values must be recomputed using a higher discount rate. It may take some trial and error to find a discount rate such that the funds required for the projects with a positive net present value is no more than the funds available.Sometimes as an alternative to this procedure people try to select the best projects on the basis of some measure of goodness such as the immanent rate of return or the benefit/cost ratio. This is not valid for several reasons. * The magnitude of the ratio of benefits to costs is to a degree arbitrary because some costs such as operating costs may be deducted from benefits and thus not be included in the cost figure. This is called netting out of operating costs. This netting out may be done for some projects and not for others.This manipulation of the benefits and costs will not affect the net ben efits but it may change the benefit/cost ratio. However it will not raise the benefit cost ratio which is less than one to above one. For more on this topic see Benefit/ cost Ratio Magnitude. * An Example * To illustrate how CBA might be applied to a project, let us consider a highway improvement such as the extension of Highway 101 into San Jose. The local four-lane highway which carried the freeway and commuter traffic into San Jose did not have a median divider and its inordinate number of fatal head-on collisions led to the propose Blood Alley. The improvement of the highway would lead to more capacity which produces time saving and lowers the risk. But unavoidably there will be more traffic than was carried by the old highway. * The following is a passing abbreviated analysis using hypothetical data. TRIP DATA No Extension, Blood Alley only(prenominal) 101 Extension and Blood Alley Rush Hours Passenger Trips (per hour) 3,000 4,000 Trip Time (minutes) 50 30 Value of Time ( $/minute) $0. 10 $0. 10 Nonrush Hours Passenger Trips (per hour) 500 555. 55 Trip Time (minutes) 35 25 Value of Time ($/minute) $0. 08 $0. 08 Traffic Fatalities per year) 12 6 * The data indicates that for rush-hour motivates the time cost of a trip is $5 without the project and $3 with it. It is assumed that the operating cost for a vehicle is unimpressed by the project and is $4. * The project lowers the cost of a trip and the public responds by increasing the number of trips taken. There is an increase in consumer surplus both for the trips which would have been taken without the project and for the trips which are stimulate by the project. * For trips which would have been taken anyway the benefit of the project equals the value of the time saved times the number of trips.For the rush-hour trip the project saves $2 and for the nonrush-hour trip it saves $0. 80. For the trips generated by the project the benefit is equal to one half of the value of the time saved times the i ncrease in the number of trips. * The benefits per hour are TYPE Trips Which Would Be taken Anyway Trips Generated By the Project Total Rush Hour 6,000. 00 1,000. 00 7,000. 00 Nonrush Hour 400. 00 22. 22 422. 22 * To convert the benefits to an annual basis one multiplies the hourly benefits of each type of trip times the number of hours per year for that type of trip.There are 260 week days per year and at six rush hours per weekday there are 1560 rush hours per year. This leaves 7200 nonrush hours per year. With these figures the annual benefits are TYPE Trips Which Would Be Taken Anyway Trips Generated By the Project Total Rush Hour $9,360,000 $1,560,000 $10,020,000 Nonrush Hour $2,880,000 $160,000 $3,040,000 Total $12,240,000 $1,720,000 $13,960,000 * The value of the reduced fatalities may be computed in terms of the equivalent economic value people place upon their lives when making choices concerning risk and money.If the labor market has wages for occupations of different ris ks such that people accept an increase in the risk of death of 1/1,000 per year in return for an increase in income of $400 per year then a project that reduces the risk of death in a year by 1/1000 gives a benefit to each person affected by it of $400 per year. The implicit valuation of a life in this case is $400,000. Thus benefit of the reduced risk project is the expected number of lives saved times the implicit value of a life. For the highway project this is 6x$400,000= $2,400,000 annually. * The annual benefits of the project are thusTYPE OF BENEFIT VALUE OF BENEFITS PER YEAR Time Saving $13,960,000 Reduced put on the line $2,400,000 * Let us assume that this level of benefits continues at a constant rate over a thirty-year lifetime of the project. * The cost of the highway consists of the costs for its right-of-way, its construction and its maintenance. The cost of the right-of-way is the cost of the land and any structures upon it which must be purchased before the constru ction of the highway can begin. For purposes of this example the cost of right-of-way is taken to be $100 million and it must be paid before any construction can begin.At least part of the right-of- way cost for a highway can be recovered at the end of the lifetime of the highway if it is not rebuilt. For the example it is assumed that all of the right-of-way cost is recoverable at the end of the thirty-year lifetime of the project. The construction cost is $200 million spread evenly over a four-year period. tutelage cost is $1 million per year once the highway is completed. * The schedule of benefits and costs for the project are as follows TIME (year) BENEFITS ($millions) RIGHT-OF -WAY ($millions) CONSTRUCTION COSTS $millions) MAINTENANCE ($millions) 0 0 100 0 0 1-4 0 0 50 0 5-29 16. 36 0 0 1 30 16. 36 -100 0 1 * The benefits and costs are in constant value dollars i. e. , there was no price increase included in the analysis. Therefore the discount rate used must be the real inte rest rate. If the interest rate on long term bonds is 8 percent and the rate of inflation is 6 percent then the real rate of interest is 2 percent. Present value of the streams of benefits and costs discounted at a 2 percent back to time zero are as follows typify VALUE $ millions) Benefits 304. 11 Costs Right-of-Way 44. 79 Construction 190. 39 Maintenance 18. 59 Total Costs 253. 77 Net Benefits 50. 35 *independent rounding * The positive net present value of $50. 35 million and benefit/cost ratio of 1. 2 indicate that the project is worthwhile if the cost of capital is 2 percent. When a discount rate of 3 percent is the benefit/cost ratio is pretty under 1. 0. This means that the internal rate of return is just under 3 percent. When the cost of capital is 3 percent the project is not worthwhile. It should be noted that the market value of the right-of-way understates the opportunity cost of having the land devoted to the highway. The land has a value of $100 million because of its income after property taxes. The economy is paying more for its exchange use but some of the payment is diverted for taxes. The discounted presented value of the payments for the alternate use might be more like $150 million instead of $100 million. Another way of making this point is that one of the costs of the highway is that the local governments lose the property tax on the land used. * Summary By reducing the positive and negative impacts of a project to their equivalent money value Cost-Benefit Analysis determines whether on balance the project is worthwhile. The equivalent money value are based upon information derived from consumer and producer market choices i. e. , the demand and supply schedules for the goods and services affected by the project. give care must be taken to properly allow for such things as inflation. When all this has been considered a worthwhile project is one for which the discounted value of the benefits exceeds the discounted value of the c osts i. . , the net benefits are positive. This is equivalent to the benefit/cost ratio being greater than one and the internal rate of return being greater than the cost of capital. * History of Cost-Benefit Analysis * CBA has its origins in the water development projects of the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. The Corps of Engineers had its origins in the French engineers hired by George Washington in the American Revolution. For years the only school of engineering in the United States was the Military Academy at West Point, New York. In 1879, Congress created the Mississippi River military commission to prevent destructive floods. The Commission included civilians but the president had to be an Army engineer and the Corps of Engineers always had veto power over any decision by the Commission. * In 1936 Congress passed the fill Control Act which contained the wording, the Federal Government should improve or participate in the improvement of navigable waters or their tributaries , including watersheds thereof, for flood-control purposes if the benefits to whomsoever they may accrue are in excess of the estimated costs. The phrase if the benefits to whomsoever they may accrue are in excess of the estimated costs established cost-benefit analysis. Initially the Corps of Engineers developed ad hoc methods for estimating benefits and costs. It wasnt until the 1950s that academic economists discovered that the Corps had developed a system for the economic analysis of public investments. Economists have influenced and improved the Corps methods since then and cost-benefit analysis has been adapted to most areas of public decision-making.