The Sensory Stimulation Theory Education Essay

The Sensory remark Theory Education Es produceChapter 2Literature Review encyclopedism Learning is a relatively permanent change in expression with behavior including both observable activity and internal process such as thought process, attitudes and emotion( burn down, 1995) harmonize to Bruner, discipline is a social process, whereby pupils pee-pee bleak archetypes based on current familiarity(Thanasoulas).There be different theories about acquire that is how people give away. It is very useful to consider their application and how student learn and how instructors teach in directional programmes(Dunn, 2002). It is also very strategic to know that every does non learn by the akin way. This reason helps teachers to devise effective strategies for teaching(Sirhan, 2007). Burns definition shows that organic evolution might not manifest itself in observable behavior until several(prenominal) sentence afterward the tuitional programme has dealn step to the fore.Sensory Stimulation Theoryharmonize to sensory stimulation scheme effective larn occurs when the senses atomic number 18 stimulated. According to Laird, question has proved that the majority of experience held by big(a)s (75%) is learned by dint of seeing. Hearing is the next around effective (about 13%) and the other senses touch, ol doery sensation and taste account for 12% of what we know (Laird, 1985). reinforcing stimulus TheoryReinforcement conjecture was presented by B.F. Skinner. Skinner viewed that behavior is a function of consequences. The assimilator go forth repeat the desired behavior if positive reinforcement (pleasant n hotshotssential consequence) follows the behavior. (Laird 1985, Burns 1995). Competency based Training is based on this theory and although it is useful in learning repetitive tasks like multiplication tables and those elaborate skills that require a great deal of practice, higher order of learning is not involved (Burns, 1995).C ognitive-Gestalt approachesThis approach emphasizes on the importance of experience, meaning, problem-solving and the development of insights (Burns, 1995, p. 112) Burns notes that this theory has developed the opinion that individuals choose different desires and concerns at different successions, and that they bring in affairive interpretations in different linguistic contexts.Holistic learning theoryThe radical premise of this theory rests on that for learning to be effective require activation of individual ad hominemity which consists of many parts specific onlyy the intellect, emotions, the body impulse (or desire), intuition and imagination (Laird, 1985, p. 121).Facilitation theory (the humanist approach)Laird (1985) discussed this theory and ascertained that learning will occur by the educator playacting as a facilitator, that is by establishing an atmosphere in which learners feel soothing to consider rising ideas and argon not threatened by outer factors. He advertise characterized this theory by arguing that i) human beings work a natural eagerness to learn ii) there is some opposition to, and unpleasant consequences of, giving up what is currently held to be true and that the just about signifi back tootht learning involves changing peerlesss concept of oneself.Experiential learningKolb (in McGill Beaty, 1995) proposed an experiential learning model which is a four-stage learning process. In fact, the process rotter begin at any of the stages and is dogging in that there is no limit to the number of cycles you bum make in a learning situation. This theory posits that without reflection one would simply continue to repeat our mistakes.Kolbs research found that people learn in four ways with the likelihood of developing one mode of learning a good deal than another. As shown in the experiential learning cycle model above, learning is i) through cover experience ii)through observation and reflection iii)through abstract conc eptualization iv)through dynamic experimentation. It is expense discussing Kolbs work furtherConstructivismConstructivism is a theory founded on observation and scientific study about how people learn. It is a method acting of teaching that encourages the opinion process of the student and presumes that prior familiarity, attitude, motivation, and learning style affect the learning process (Spencer, 1999).It is the idea that the learners construct their own knowledge. Constructing of knowledge is a personal process where the student is involved in their own learning by seeking to find meaning to their present and past experiences (Boghassiam, 2006). Constructivism may make out an alternative methodology to the traditional teaching method known.The traditional method for teaching cognition has its roots in what is c onlyed behaviourism, which is the belief that an idea female genitalia be transferred intact from the mind of the instructor to the mind of the student, or that body politic is teaching (Spencer, 1999). behaviourism views the student as an unreflective responder (Boghassiam, 2006).When implementing the behaviorism method students argon expected to respond to questions in twelvemonth or on a test. If their answers atomic number 18 make, they receive a good stain as a way to encourage their good behavior. If the student does not bemuse the answer correct, they will receive a poor company with the hope to send the message to the student that their behavior is bad and that they need to change it until they get the answer correct. There is no subjective element to learning- all in determining what to study or in how in lay downation is interpreted, used, or understood (Boghassiam, 2006). Behaviorism dominated the educational landscape 25 eld ago, while the foremost learning theory today is constructivism (Boghassiam, 2006). Table 1 lists some comparative features of behaviorism and constructivism.Table 1. Comparison of Behaviorism and ConstructivismConstructivismBehaviorismKnowledge is constructed.Group work promotes the negotiation of and develops a mutually dual-lane meaning of knowledge. Individual learner is significant.The readiness to answer with only one answer does not demonstrate student understanding.Truths are independent of the context in which they are ob military expediencyd.Learner observes the order inherent in the world. claim is to transmit knowledge experts realise acquired.Exam questions have one correct answer.(Spencer, 1999). unexampled Directions in Teaching alchemy A philosophical and pedagogical Basis. Journal of chemic Education, 76(4), 566.Professor Jean Piaget lifes work was based on the study of the nature of knowledge and the childs psychology. Jean Piagets theory on the rational development of children included the concept of cognitive structures, which the child himself constructs in fundamental interaction with the environment in a continuous way from birth to adolescen ce (Schwebel Raph, 1973). Advocates of constructivism train with Piaget claiming that constructivism is the individuals processing of stimuli from the environment and the resulting cognitive structures that produces adaptive behavior (Kathleen Bahr, 2008)(Brandon, 2010). These structures take the form of schemata, explanations, and experiences that a student uses to understand the world they experience around them (Todd, 2004, p. 12).The doctrine of constructivist education operates by four major assumptions.The startle assumption is that preceding constructs are the foundation of the learning process in each student. In other words, new information is transformed and interpreted based upon what a student introductoryly learned.Second, assimilation and accommodation processes lead to new constructions. New information may not be able to assimilate with previous knowledge, so the student accommodates the new information resulting in new zones of cognitive development or higher l earning.Third, learning is not mechanical, hardly a process of invention. This is the idea that students hypothesize, predict, manipulate, and construct knowledge, quite a than simply memorize facts.Finally, constructivists assume that meaningful knowledge occurs through reflection and the linking of new information to the existing framework of knowledge.(Brandon, 2010)Piaget discusses constructivism by explaining it as intelligence, what it means, where it comes from, and how it is developed. From Jean Piagets point of view, intelligence is the ability to adapt to new situations. In order to adapt to a new situation, a person moldiness comprehend the situation and come up with a solution through their understanding. In order to understand a new situation, one must assimilate it to knowledge that has already been make and brought to the situation. Piaget calls this knowledge that is brought to the new situation as structures. Knowledge is in some way make or structured for all ages. Structures become much elaborate as a person grows one- condemnation(a) (Schwebel Raph, 1973, pp. 217-218). An example of this would be adult humor. A 4 year aged and their parent crumb go to the movies and there will be concepts in the movie that the adult will comprehend, that the child will not. Another example of richer structures of knowledge amongst older people can be tested by asking what the first thing that comes to mind when a 4, 10, and 20 year old gain vigor the word mommy. A 4 year old may say she loves me or I love her. A 10 year old may say she stays home and takes care of the house. A 20 year old may respond with motherhood. Piaget would explain that because knowledge is an organised structure, no meaningful concept can exist in isolation (Schwebel Raph, 1973). To the contrary, a behaviorist would expect for each person to have the same answer when supposeing of the word mommy.The development of intelligence is a continuous process of constructions f rom birth to adolescence in a sequence that is the same for all children in all finishings (Schwebel Raph, 1973, p. 222). A behaviorist would state that knowledge is draped from the outside, while Piaget would see knowledge as a installing of structures from inside. Piaget incites his diversion to a behaviorist by explaining that children would not have similar sequences in development if information was simply absorbed. The only major difference in development amongst children has been the rate of development and not the sequence (Schwebel Raph, 1973, p. 222). The four factors of development are biological factors, experiences with physical objects, social factors of inter-individual coordination and cultural and educational transmission, and factors of equilibration (Schwebel Raph, 1973, p. 223). It is the employment of the teacher to teach in such a way that all the factors are at work (Schwebel Raph, 1973, p. 224).Constructivists have shown that the model that is the c losest to how students learn is called the learning cycle. A learning cycle is illustrated in Figure.InductivedeductiveEIAExplorationConcept Invention finishWhat did you do?What did you find?Organizes InformationData AquisitionIs there any excogitation to the data?Predict, form a ventureWhat does it mean?Test hypothesisHigher level of thinkingFigure . The Learning Cycle(Spencer, 1999).New Directions in Teaching Chemistry A philosophical and Pedagogical Basis. Journal of Chemical Education, 76(4), 566.The constructivist-learning-cycle approach is also called inquiry-based and has been shown to facilitate retention of information and the transfer of thinking skills and content (Spencer, 1999). It is through the constructivist-learning-cycle that students proceed from the concrete to the abstract.(Spencer, 1999).The constructive theory encourages learners to be active creators of their knowledge. The role of the student is to pick out and transform information, hit ideas, and make d ecisions, while relying on cognitive structures. Rather than using the teachers knowledge and textbooks for solving problems, the students comes up with solutions and develops knowledge in the learning process. The student must feel connected to their teacher for constructivist learning to occur. If the student feels disconnected from their teacher, they will go back to the old ways of learning they feel most comfortable with such as rote memorization, algorithmic techniques, and cramming (Todd, 2004, pp. 12-18).The job of the teacher is to design a learning format that is aligned with the students current state of knowledge. The teacher becomes a facilitator of knowledge asking, What do students need to learn? kind of than, What do I want to teach? Recognizing students preexisting conceptions, teachers guide activities to build students knowledge. As each new activity is taught, the student uses previous knowledge to develop more complex ideas and integrate new information (Brando n All, 2010). The control inquiry curriculum begins with the assumption that knowledge is not directly transferred from the instructor to the student that is the constructivist approach is implemented and follows the learning cycle (Spencer, 1999).A closer see at control inquiry and its practical implication will be discussed in further detail in the next section.Application of Constructivism theoryGuided InquiryGuided-inquiry learning is a process by which students list basic concepts through active investigation (Jin Bierma, 2011).Guided-inquiry, commonly known as POGIL (for Process Oriented Guided-Inquiry Learning), has been shown to significantly increase student comprehension of difficult-to-understand concepts (Jin Bierma, 2011). Guided-inquiry is an active learning technique that focuses on concept understanding. Recent developments in aimroom research results suggest that students mainly experience improved learning when they are actively engaged in the consortroo m and when they construct their own knowledge following a learning cycle paradigm (Farrel, S.Moog, Spence, 1999).Active learning techniques are used by educators who recognize that students learn better by doing rather than listening (Jin Bierma, 2011)Guided-inquiry is commonly used in interpersonal interpersonal chemistry labs. The student is guided through questions in their lab assignments until they discover the concepts where the mechanisms at work are too small to observe with the naked eye (Jin Bierma, 2011). The student looks for trends and patterns in the data they collect. At that point they would form a hypothesis and thus test their hypothesis. The goal is to make connections mingled with observations and principles. This approach is based on the learning cycle data collection, concept invention, and application (Farrel, S.Moog, Spence, 1999). Throughout the inbuilt lab the student would be asked channelize questions to require the student to think about the non -homogeneous steps rather than simply following pedagogys (Farrel, S.Moog, Spence, 1999)With the implication of guided-inquiry methods, students work in teams with specifically designed guided-inquiry materials. The materials will either provide information or guide students through experiments, so they can collect their own information. These materials can be in the form of worksheets that serve as a tutorial to the students. The worksheets can contain questions that help to construct understanding by having the student build on previous knowledge. These guiding questions would be asked for students to discover by their own conclusions (Jin Bierma, 2011).A large part of guided-inquiry is the questions asked of the students. These questions can be referred to as probing questions.Teachers who have incorporated guided-inquiry techniques into their classroom have found that their students grades have improved because of it (Jin Bierma, 2011)(Farrel, S.Moog, Spence, 1999).It is i mportant when implementing guided-inquiry for the students to be given meter when working on an answer to a probing question, the teacher should observe, but once they interject their opinion, the benefit of the inquiry-based learning is compromised. The more the students discuss amongst themselves, the more likely they will come to the correct answer and learn the concept in order to retain it. Probing questions need to be constructed in a way that students can come to their predictions before the class time is complete. The downside to guided-inquiry is that it takes more time to create the learning materials and not as much information can be covered in a class period (Jin Bierma, 2011). Because this type of curriculum takes a lot of time for the teacher to prepare, it is very important that when a teacher finds a lesson that works well, and the students are learning, they must share their lesson with other teachers. Teachers should not be spending time creating guided-inquiry curriculum that has already been created, they should be creating another lesson that has not been formatted into guided-inquiry curriculum (Jin Bierma, 2011) enormousness of MathematicsIbn Khaldun, a great historian, sociologist, philosopher who born in 1332AD, in Tunis,is the Strongest personalities of Arab-Muslim culture in the period of its decline. He stressed the role of maths in his book al-Muqaddima asEducation should be started with mathematics. For it forms well designed brains that are able to reason right. It is even admitted that those who have studied mathematics during their childhood should be trusted, for they have acquired solid bases for arguing which become to them a break up of present moment nature.According to the Britannica Concise encyclopedia, mathematics is the acquisition of structure, order and likeness that has evolved from counting, measuring and describing the shapes of objects. It deals with logical reasoning and quantitative numeration. Sinc e it involves quantitative calculations this makes it necessary to our customary life as a day shall not pass without one doing some form of calculation really or abstractly in his or her brain. Imagine how it would be life if there was no mathematics how were we going to count days, months and years, etc.Mathematics plays an important role in the complex world of science and technology. The scientific and technological development since 1940 emphasise for the first time that we live in scientific age and the disciplines which support this scientific and technologist civilisation such as physics, chemistry, engineering, the management sciences, economic, the biological and medical sciences and the behavioral sciences all require Mathematics for their understanding and their further development. The place of mathematics in education must be obdurate by analysis of the society, the culture and the civilization, which the education is designed to serve. The dominant features of o ur civilization today are a series of major even revolutionist scientific developments, which have occurred in the twentieth century. Mathematics by rectitude of its extensive, practical applications and the aesthetic appeal of its methods and results has long held a prominent place in education.Mathematics occupies a central position in curriculum. It is a required subject from class I X. It is being taught as an combine subject. It covers various areas like arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry and statistics etc. Mathematics has gained the status of a special and universal words, which enables man to express his ideas about shape, quantity and relationship. thus knowledge of Mathematics is essential for successful life. The traditional theories of mathematics have been changed with the advent of the computer. In the past, application of mathematics was limited in extent. It is to be conceived as an integrated study of the learners environment, which contains the eleme nt of mathematics. The development of mathematics concept in our children will be best achieved mathematics concepts from concrete situations ask perceptive teaching. Gall and Hicks (1964) described that mathematics has played a refer role in science, technology, industry, business, and agriculture. Its study has been associated with habits of effective thinking, intellectual independence, aesthetic gustation and creative expression. (Arif, 2011)Mathematics and Science Education in PakistanPakistans Education schema can be broadly divided into Basic Education (primary, bare(a) and substitute(prenominal) levels) and Higher Education (post inessential and graduate levels). Both are governed by separate ministries with distinct management and financial systems. Mainstream or disposal indoctrinates offer primary education from class I V (5 to 9) and therefore middle or elementary schooling, class VI-VIII (10-13) and finally secondary schooling, class IX X (14 15). In class es IX and X students take the secondary school matriculation examination which is conducted by the Boards of Secondary Education. The medium of instruction in primary schools is Urdu, but English is introduced as a second row in class VI. The medium of instruction in the unexclusive schools is mainly Urdu, however, most of the teachers use their regional language as the language of instruction. Schools in the Provinces also teach their regional languages as a subject. However, Sindh is an expulsion where government schools can opt for Sindhi as a medium of instruction. As noted in the white paper and subsequently elaborated in media briefs in line with the curriculum reform to be introduced in 2007, the Ministry of Education has taken a policy decision to change the language of instruction to English in Science and Mathematics classrooms from grade VI and above (HassanAly, 2006).Science is taught as a obligatory subject at primary and elementary level (I-VIII) in an integration of biological science, chemistry, physics and humankind science. In primary classes (I-V), students study science 12 % of the total school time. At middle school level (VI-VIII) students spend 13-15% of their school time in studying science. At the secondary school level (IX-X) science is optional and those who opt for it study 12-14 % on each science subject physics, chemistry and biology. The content of the teaching in the middle classes revolves around trey broad areas living things, matter and energy, and the earth and the universe.(Halai, Razvi, Rodrigues, 2007)Mathematics is also taught as a compulsory subject for classes I VIII. The curriculum content is organized mainly into five major strands, number and number operations, measurement, geometry, data use and algebra. At the secondary level (classes IX X) students can opt to take science group or general group. The former includes among other subjects physics, chemistry, biology and advanced mathematics (with a great er focus on algebra, functions, and trigonometry). The latter(prenominal) includes humanities and a course in general mathematics (with greater emphasis on arithmetic and less emphasis on algebra, functions and trigonometry). However, in 1995-96 the policy has changed according to which both groups take the same course in mathematics at the secondary level. A consequence of this policy is that school examination at class VIII serves the role as furnish keepers in terms of who gets the science group and who doesnt. Those who perform well in mathematics and science at class VIII level get the opportunity of taking the science group. This bifurcation at an early stage in the academic life has implications for subsequent employment opportunities and poverty reduction.In a historical account of science education in Pakistan, Iqbal Mahmood (2000) maintain that until 1950 science was not taught at primary and middle level. It was the Science Education focal point established in 1959 whi ch recommended that science education be made compulsory for classes VI-VIII. In the early sixties science education was made compulsory for I VIII but its quality was very poor. Iqbal Mahmood (2000) have shown that various education policies (1972, 1979, 1998-2010) have increasingly shifted the emphasis from a general education to science and technology education with a concomitant emphasis on school curriculum reforms both at primary and secondary level, to depart students curiosity in scientific inquiry and understanding of scientific concepts and processes(Halai, Razvi, Rodrigues, 2007). For example, a recommendation of 1979 policy was to set Science Education Project (SEP) a six years project initiated in 1984 for promotion of science education in Pakistan at elementary and secondary and higher secondary level (6- 12) in collaboration of Asian Development Bank (Hill Tanveer, 1990).Relationship between mathematics and chemistry.In all nations of the world science and mathem atics are given first class attention due to numerous benefits derived from them. Chemistry which is believed to be the mother of science equips students with knowledge in areas such as drugs, diseases, pollution, food, chemicals etc which when applied to the society improves man standard of living.(udousoro, 2011)Mathematics has generally been pass judgment as the foundation of science and technology and it is a very important subject in the secondary school curriculum, therefore, every nation needs it for sustained scientific and technological development.(udousoro, 2011)Also, mathematics is considered as a service tool for the study of sciences especially chemistry. But despite its importance and usefulness, it is a subject that is most feared by students at primary, secondary, even in the 3rd levels of education. Hence student with poor mathematics knowledge cannot solve calculation problems in chemistry (Kramers-pals, Lambrechts, Wolff, 2000).A careful study of the senior se condary chemistry curriculum in Nigeria and West African Senior enfranchisement syllabus reveal that a proper understanding of the numeral concepts on Isotopy, formula, equations, solubility, chemical kinetics, quantitative and molar ratio, radioactivity, pH and laws of chemical equilibra etc in chemistry needs a good knowledge of basic mathematics and generally involves a lot of computation which make mathematics an important expression of it(udousoro, 2011).The potency of mathematics as an anchor that holds the desirable achievement in the physical and biological sciences has been widely acknowledged. For instance, in chemical education, substantial studies have examined the relationship between mathematics and chemistry and found that mathematics forms the basic ingredients to the understanding of chemistry and the establishment of new facts by many research worker like Abdullahi, 1982 Johnstone, 1984 Adesoji, 1985 Carter and Brickhouse, 1989 Bello, 1990 Schmidt, 1992 Kogut, 1993 Axalonu, 1995 Adeyeye, 1999 Olayiwola, 2001 Kehinde, 2005 Adesugba, 2006(Oluwatayo, 2011).Though earlier studies in this area conducted in Nigeria account that many students find chemistry difficult because of its abstract nature and the mathematical skills required, the bulk of the blame has been placed on the teachers for failing to develop the call for mathematical skills in the students to tackle chemical problems with ease. It is intriguing that many chemistry teachers tactically skip some perceived difficult concepts in chemistry, especially the quantitative aspects of chemical reactions due to their inability to effectively teach them, the factor which has scared many students away from chemistry(Oluwatayo, 2011).